TIME	EVENT DESCRIPTION	LOCATION
UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN	1) We are a tiny part of a universe that is made of an infinite amount of space, matter and time.
990,000,000,000 YBN	2) There is more space than matter.
980,000,000,000 YBN	3) All matter is made of particles of light. Light particles are the base unit of all matter from the tiniest particles to the largest galaxies. In this sense light particles are the most basic atoms. This view of light as a material particle and the basis of all matter, conflicts with the popular theory that light is massless. The basic order of matter from smaller to larger is light particles, electrons and positrons, muons, protons and antiprotons, atoms, molecules, living objects, planets, stars, globular clusters, galaxies, and then galactic clusters.
970,000,000,000 YBN	11) The universe has no start or end. The same light particles that have always been, continue to move in the space that has always been.
960,000,000,001 YBN	5) Matter and motion can never be created or destroyed. Matter can never be converted into motion, and motion can never be converted into matter.
950,000,000,000 YBN	6) Light particles become trapped with each other and so form structures such as protons, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. This accumulation of light particles into atoms may be the result of particle collision, gravitation, or a combination of both.
940,000,000,000 YBN	7) All of the billions of galaxies we see are only a tiny part of the universe. We will never see most of the universe because no light particles from there can ever reach us. Most galaxies are too far away for even one particle of light they emit to be going in the exact direction of our tiny location, and all the light particles they emit are captured by atoms in between there and here. As telescopes grow larger, the number of galaxies and the distance we can see will increase.
935,000,000,000 YBN	4) There is a pattern in the universe. Light particles move from highly dense volumes of space to volumes of less density. In low density volumes, light particles slowly accumulate to form atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which exist as gas clouds (like the Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula). These gas clouds, called nebulae continue to accumulate trapped light particles. At points of high density planets and stars form and the cloud is eventually dense enough to become a galaxy of stars. The stars emit light particles back out to the rest of the universe, where the light again becomes trapped and forms new clouds. Around each star are many planets and pieces of matter. On many of the planets rotating around stars, living objects evolve that can copy themselves by converting matter around them into more of them. Living objects need matter to replace matter lost from the constant emitting of light particles (decay). Like bacteria, these living objects grow in number, with the most successful organisms occupying and moving around many stars. These advanced organisms then move the groups of stars they control, as a globular cluster, away from the plane of the spiral galaxy. As time continues, all of the stars of a galaxy are occupied by living objects who have organized their stars into globular clusters. These globular clusters together form an elliptical galaxy, and then finally a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy may then exist for a long time living off the matter in stars, in addition to matter from external sources. So free light particles are trapped into volumes of space that grow in density first forming atoms, then gas clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy, an elliptical galaxy, and finally a globular galaxy. Globular galaxies at our scale may be light particles at a much larger scale, just as light particles at our scale may be globular galaxies at a much smaller scale. This system may go on infinitely in both larger and smaller scale.
930,000,000,000 YBN	8) An expanding universe seems unlikely to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium absorption lines may be a mistaken observation, for one reason because spectrum size changes the position of spectral lines (as clearly shown in the 1936 Humason photo), and because the distance of a light source changes the position, but not the frequency of spectral lines.
LIFE
165,000,000,000 YBN	13) The Milky Way Nebula starts to form. Galaxies may form from accumulation of light particles and from the collision of two or more galaxies. If a galaxy is viewed as an exponential accumulation of light particles starting from a single light particle up until 500 billion stars, only in the last 16% of that time would a galaxy have enough matter for even a single star.
33,000,000,000 YBN	6180) The first star in the Milky Way Galaxy forms. Stars may form from the accumulation of matter or from collisions of two or more large bodies. As time goes by, less collisions occur around a star, because most smaller objects are absorbed by the star and planets. Stars and planets may have centers of densely packed unmoving light particles. The less dense and colder area near the surface of planets and stars may allow atoms and molecules to form and stay together. Many light particles must move through the internal maze of matter inside planets and stars to eventually reach the surface and escape into empty space.
22,000,000,000 YBN	6181) Living objects in the Milky Way Galaxy reach another star using a ship, perhaps 5 billion years after the first stars formed.
10,000,000,000 YBN	6182) The first globular cluster of 100,000 stars forms in the Milky Way Galaxy.
5,500,000,000 YBN	16) The star Earth orbits forms.
5,500,000,000 YBN	17) Planets form around our star from many collisions. Like the star, they are red hot with liquid rock and metals on the surface. Lighter atoms move to the surface of the planets. Larger planets are surrounded by gas. As the number of collisions decrease, and smaller objects are absorbed by the star and planets, the average temperature of the star system is lowered. As the temperature of the planets and moons decrease, the surface solidifies, water and other molecules condense at the surface. Perhaps most outer planets are larger, because their orbit covers a larger space which includes more matter.
4,600,000,000 YBN	21) The moon of Earth is captured. The moon of Earth may form as a planet that is captured by the Earth, or a planet that collides with the Earth and then reforms from the remaining matter of the collision, or forms in orbit of the Earth at the same time the Earth forms.
4,600,000,000 YBN	30) Planet Earth cools. Molten liquid rock turns into a solid thin crust. Water condenses and falls to the surface, filling the lowest parts of the land to make the first Earth oceans, lakes, and rivers.
4,600,000,000 YBN	50) The start of the "Precambrian" and the Hadean {HA DEen} Eon.
4,571,000,000 YBN	31) The oldest meteorite yet found on Earth: 4.57 billion years old.
4,530,000,000 YBN	33) The oldest Moon rock returned from the Moon (4.53 billions old).
4,404,000,000 YBN	34) The oldest "terrestrial" zircon; evidence that the crust and liquid water are on the surface of Earth. A terrestrial zircon is not from a meteorite. This zircon is from Gneiss {nIS} (metamorphic rock) in West Australia that is 4.4 billion years old. This are also the oldest rock and metamorphic rock; a rock that results from the alteration of a preexisting rock in response to changing geological conditions, including variations in temperature, pressure, and mechanical stress.
4,400,000,000 YBN	18) Larger molecules form on Earth, like amino acids, phosphates, and sugars, the components of living objects. These molecules are made in the oceans, fresh water, and atmosphere of Earth (and other planets) by lightning, light particles with high frequency from the Sun, and from ocean floor volcanoes. The initial building blocks of living objects are easily formed, but assembling them into longer-chain molecules, or polymers, is more difficult. Amino acids link up to form polymers called proteins, simple fatty acids plus alcohols link up to form lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars like glucose and sucrose link together to form complex carbohydrates and starches, and finally, the nucleotide bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link up to form nucleic acids, the genetic code of organisms, known as RNA and DNA. Perhaps all proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and DNA are strictly the products of living objects, while RNA can be made without the help of any living objects.
4,395,000,000 YBN	19) Nucleic acids form on Earth. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA molecules may be the ancestor of all of life on Earth.
4,390,000,000 YBN	25) An RNA molecule may evolve that can copy other RNA molecules.
4,385,000,000 YBN	167) The first proteins on Earth. Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA), and link amimo acids into proteins using other RNA molecules ("messenger" or mRNA molecules), as a template. This protein assembly system is the main system responsible for all the proteins on Earth. Part of each tRNA bonds with a specific amino acid, while another part has a 3 nucleotide sequence that bonds with an opposite matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an mRNA. Perhaps this system, where tRNA molecules build proteins directly from free floating RNA strands, evolves before the first ribosome and the first cell.
4,380,000,000 YBN	40) A protein can copy RNA. This protein is called an RNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS}. For the first time, a nucleic acid functions both as a template for building proteins (with the help of tRNA molecules) and also as a template for building other nucleic acid molecules. An RNA polymerase must be one of the first useful proteins to be assembled by the early (presumably) precellular protein production system. Eventually an mRNA that codes for the RNA polymerase and the tRNA needed for the polymerase may be copied many times.
4,370,000,000 YBN	168) The ribosome evolves. The first Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The ribosome may function as a protocell, providing a platform for more efficient protein production. A single RNA may contain all the instructions needed to make more polymerase, tRNA, and ribosomes. Alternatively the first ribosome may not evolve until after the first cell. All cells contain ribosomes. Ribosomes are the cellular organelles that carry out protein synthesis, through a process called translation. These molecular machines are responsible for accurately translating the linear genetic code on the messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear sequence of amino acids to produce a protein.
4,365,000,000 YBN	166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that allows the assembly of DNA from RNA; a ribonucleotide reductase. This protein changes ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides, which can then be assembled into the first DNA molecules on Earth. DNA has the advantage of being more stable than RNA and can hold together in longer strands. Longer strands allow for a more complex organism. How and when the first DNA evolved is not certain. Perhaps RNA and DNA were both created by a similar process, and created around the same time. But perhaps the first DNA molecule is the result of the first ribonucleotide reductase. One of these DNA molecules may be the template for the line of cells that survives to now.
4,360,000,000 YBN	212) A protein can copy DNA molecules, a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS}.
4,360,000,000 YBN	6409) Transcription evolves. A protein (an RNA polymerase) assembles RNA from DNA. This polymerase is also called DNA-dependent RNA polymerase and transcriptase.
4,355,000,000 YBN	20) The first cell on Earth evolves. This is the first prokaryotic cell and first bacterium. DNA is surrounded by a membrane of proteins made by ribosomes; the first cytoplasm. This cell may form in either fresh or salt water, near the sunlit water surface or near underwater volcanoes on the ocean floor. The DNA of this cell is a template containing the code for a copying molecule (DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS}), and the necessary mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed to build the cytoplasm. For the first time, ribosomes and DNA build cell structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm is more likely to survive and be copied. Copies of this cell also have cytoplasm. This is the start of binary cell division. DNA polymerase duplicates DNA within the cell and then the cell divides into two parts. Two important evolutionary steps evolve: DNA duplication within cytoplasm, and cell (DNA with cytoplasm) division. Not only must the DNA copy and divide, but the cell membrane must also divide too. A system of division may evolve in which the original and newly synthesized copy of DNA are each attached to the cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows, the two copies of DNA can be separated and the growing mass can eventually divide into two cells. This is also the start of passive transport. Amino acids, nucleotides, water, and other molecules enter and exit the cytoplasm only because of a difference in concentration from inside and outside the cell. This represent the beginnings of the first digestive system. This membrane forms the first protective barrier between DNA and the external universe, and serves as a container to hold water. This cell structure forms the basis of all future cells of every living object on Earth. These first cells are probably anaerobic (or anoxygenic- do not require free oxygen) and are heterotrophic, meaning that they do not make their own food (amino acids, nucleotides, phosphates, and sugars) but instead depend on obtaining these molecules from external sources. In addition, living objects require a certain temperature range to live, and this involves the constant absorption and emission of light particles.
4,350,000,000 YBN	183) Cells make the first lipids on Earth; (fats, oils, and waxes) by making proteins that can assemble lipids.
4,345,000,000 YBN	27) A phospholipid bilayer evolves around the cell, providing added protection from the external environment. All extant cells have this phospholipid bilayer. When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into double-layered aggregates, or bilayers, with the phosphate part of the molecule on the outside and the fatty acid tail part on the inside.
4,340,000,000 YBN	26) Possibly DNA that is connected in a circle allows the DNA polymerase to make continuous copies of the cell, which may increase the speed of cell growth, duplication, and division. As far as is known bacteria do not die of old age, but if a mutation stops them from dividing, then they die. Bacteria can also die from physical destruction in addition to lack of food and water.
4,340,000,000 YBN	64) Operons evolve. An operon is a sequence of DNA which a protein binds with in order to block RNA polymerase from building an mRNA molecule, from part of the sequence, which would be translated into a protein. Operons allow a bacterium to produce certain proteins only when necessary. Bacteria before now can only build a constant stream of all proteins encoded in their DNA.
4,340,000,000 YBN	6340) Facilitated diffusion evolves. Proteins in the cell membrane allow only certain molecules to enter the cell. "Facilitated diffusion" is passive transport aided by proteins.
4,335,000,000 YBN	28) Cellular respiration. Glycolysis evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can now make ATP (adenosine {oDeNoSEN} triphosphate) by converting glucose into pyruvate {PIrUVAT}. This is the beginning of cellular respiration, how cells convert food into ATP and waste products. ATP is the molecule that drives most cellular work. The word "glycolysis" means "sugar splitting", and that is what happens during this molecular reaction. Glucose a six-carbon sugar, is split into two three-carbon sugars. These smaller sugars are then oxidized (an electron is removed) and their remaining atoms rearranged to form two molecules of pyruvate (the ionized form of pyruvic acid). Glycolysis occurs whether Oxygen is present or not. Oxygen does not start to accumulate in the air of Earth until around 2.7 billion years ago, so early prokaryotes may have produced ATP exclusively by glycolysis. That glycolysis is today the most widespread metabolic pathway among Earth's organisms suggests that it evolved very early in the history of life. That glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm (or cytosol), not requiring any of the membrane-bounded organelles of the later evolved eukaryotic cell, also implies that glycolysis is very old. That Glycolysis functions as the first stage in the later evolved fermentation and aerobic respiration is also evidence of an ancient origin.
4,330,000,000 YBN	44) Fermentation evolves in the cell cytoplasm. Cells can make lactic acid. These cells, which are anaerobic, can now convert pyruvate, the final product of glycolysis, into lactate (an ionized form of lactic acid), and in the process refuel glycolysis and the production of ATP molecules.
4,325,000,000 YBN	213) A second kind of fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) into ethanol.
4,315,000,000 YBN	196) Active transport evolves. Proteins and ATP are used to transport molecules into and out of the cytoplasm. Active transport enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules that differ from the cell's surroundings.
4,200,000,000 YBN	292) The prokaryote flagellum evolves. Prokaryotic cells now have more mobility, and can make more choices about their location.
4,193,000,000 YBN	77) The Archaea (also called archaebacteria) evolve according to genetic comparison. The Phylum Nanoarcheota. Eubacteria and Archaea are the two major lines of Prokaryotes. Archaea have a variety of shapes, including spherical, rodlike, and spiral forms. Genetic studies have indicated that archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria.
4,189,000,000 YBN	193) The Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles" evolve (the ancestor of Aquifex and Thermotoga). Aquifex and Thermotoga are the only two major genera of eubacteria that are hyperthermophiles. They grow best in a environment that is around 80 degrees Celsius.
4,187,000,000 YBN	180) The Archaea Phylum: Crenarchaeota evolves (the ancestor of Sulfolobus). The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly referred to as the Crenarchaea, contains many organisms that are extremely thermophilic {tR-mu-FiL-iK} (heat-loving) and cryophilic {KrI-e-FiL-iK} (cold-loving).
4,187,000,000 YBN	181) The Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} evolves (the ancestor of methanogens and halobacteria {HaL-O-BaK-TER-E-u}). The earliest cell response to light. The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} are composed of two classes: methanogens, which produce methane and are often found in intestines and sewage, and the halobacteria, which survive in high concentrations of salt. They are grouped together on the basis of rRNA sequence similarities. Some halobacteria use sensory rhodopsin (a pigment sensitive to red light) for phototaxis (positive or negative movement along a light gradient or vector).
4,112,000,000 YBN	58) The first autotrophic cells; cells that can produce some of their own food. Autotrophs produce their own sugars, lipids, and amino acids. There are only two kinds of autotrophs: chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs. Chemoautotrophs (or simply chemotrophs) use chemical nutrients to synthesize carbohydrates, while photoautotrophs use light to synthesize carbohydrates. This is a chemoautotrophic cell: genes and metabolic sequences suggest that chemoautotrophs evolve before photoautotrophs.
4,100,000,000 YBN	49) Photosynthesis evolves. Anaerobic bacteria use light particles to convert carbon dioxide gas and an electron donor (also called a reductant) like Hydrogen sulfide into glucose, water, and sulfur. This process of moving carbon from carbon dioxide gas to the hydrocarbon molecule glucose is called carbon fixation. This is the ancestor of Photosystem I. One of two photosythesis systems, photosystem I has a chlorophyll molecule that has a light absorption peak of 700 nm and is therefore known as P700. This system of photosynthesis does not liberate oxygen. Photosynthetic organisms that do not liberate oxygen are found in four of the 24 phyla of bacteria: Firmicutes (FiRmiKYUTEZ), Proteobacteria, Chlorobi {KlOROBE} and Chloroflexi. Some Archaea like can perform a different kind of photosynthesis that probably arises independently after the eubacteria archaea split.
4,000,000,000 YBN	43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II evolves. Cells with this system emit free Oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria use light particles to convert carbon dioxide gas and water into glucose, releasing oxygen gas in the process. This is the main system responsible for producing the Oxygen now in the air of Earth. Photosystem 2 absorbs light best at 680nm wavelengths, a higher frequency of light than Photosystem 1. These cells can break the strong Hydrogen bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen in water molecules (which are more abundant than Sulphur) and then emit free Oxygen.
4,000,000,000 YBN	51) The end of the Hadean {HADEiN} and start of the Archean {oRKEiN} Eon.
3,950,000,000 YBN	37) (Filamentous) multicellularity evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay fastened together after cell division. Multicellularity appears to have evolved independently multiple times in the history of life on Earth. With multicellularity comes the evolution of differentiation, cells with different functions.
3,950,000,000 YBN	316) Cell differentiation evolves in filamentous prokaryotes, creating organisms with different kinds of cells. One early cell differentiation is that only the cell at the tip of the filament can divide while the older cells below the tip do not divide. Multicellular organisms can die from aging, a series of cell differentiations that ultimately result in the inability for the multicellular body to continue functioning and to decay.
3,950,000,000 YBN	322) Nitrogen fixation evolves. Cells can make nitrogen compounds like ammonia from Nitrogen gas in the air. Nitrogen fixing bacteria play an important role in allowing plants to obtain nitrogen from nitrogen gas in the air. Nitrogen is needed to make proteins and nucleic acids.	West Africa
3,900,000,000 YBN	57) Aerobic cellular respiration evolves. The first aerobic (or "oxygenic") cell. These cells use oxygen to convert glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Aerobic cellular respiration evolves as an alternative to fermentation by using oxygen to break down the product of glycolysis, pyruvate, into carbon dioxide and water, producing up to 38 ATP molecules in the process.
3,850,000,000 YBN	36) The oldest physical evidence for life: the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in grains of ancient apetite {aPeTIT} (which are calcium phosphate minerals). Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope and so the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 is different from a nonliving source (such as calcium carbonate or limestone).	Akilia Island, Western Greenland
3,850,000,000 YBN	45) The oldest sediment, the Banded Iron Formation begins. Banded Iron Formation is sedimentary rock that spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years ago, made of iron-rich silicates (like silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating layers of black colored ferrous (reduced) iron and red colored ferric (oxidized) iron. These alternating layers represent a seasonal cycle where the quantity of free oxygen in the ocean rises and falls, possibly linked to photosynthetic organisms. The atmosphere of Earth still has only small amounts of oxygen at this time.	Akilia Island, Western Greenland
3,850,000,000 YBN	189) The earliest possible fossils. Microstructures from Isua Banded iron formation, Southwest Greenland.	(Isua BIF) SW Greenland
3,800,000,000 YBN	185) Molecular fossil evidence of Archaea: Isoprene compounds.	Isua, Greenland
3,500,000,000 YBN	39) The oldest fossil evidence of life: stromatolites. Stromatolites made by photosynthetic bacteria are found in both Western Australia, and South Africa.	Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig Tree Group, South Africa
3,500,000,000 YBN	287) The oldest fossils of an organism, and the oldest prokaryote and bacteria fossils. The organism is similar to cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u}, and is found in the 3,500 million year old chert (sedimentary rock made of silica) in Australia and South Africa. 2.8 billion years will pass before the first animal evolves.	Warrawoona, northwestern Western Australia and Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa
3,470,000,000 YBN	182) Evidence of sulfate reduction by bacteria: the ratio of atomic mass 32 to mass 34 sulfur. Prokaryotes that reduce sulfate cause a higher ratio of sulfur-32 to sulfur-34 in the sulfide they produce.	North Pole, Australia
3,400,000,000 YBN	190) The earliest fossils of coccoid {KoKOED} (spherical) bacteria; from the Kromberg Formation of the Swaziland System in South Africa.	Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System, South Africa
3,260,000,000 YBN	71) The earliest fossil evidence of prokaryote reproduction by budding. Like binary division, budding is a form of asexual reproduction. However, with budding a new individual develops from a certain point of the parent organism. The new individual may separate to exist independently, or the buds may remain attached, forming colonies. Budding is characteristic of a few unicellular organisms (certain bacteria, yeasts, and protozoans) but some metazoan animals (certain cnidarian species) regularly reproduce by budding.	Swartkoppie, South Africa
3,235,000,000 YBN	68) The earliest Archaea fossils.	(Sulphur Springs Deposit) Pilbara Craton of Australia
3,200,000,000 YBN	66) The earliest acritarch fossils (unicellular microfossils with uncertain affinity). These acritarchs are also the earliest possible eukaryote fossils. Living spherical prokaryotic cells rarely exceed 20 microns in diameter, but eukaryotic cells are nearly always larger than 60 microns. Although their precise nature is uncertain, acritarchs appear to be phytoplankton {FITO-PlaNK-TeN} (freely floating microscopic algae) that grow thick coverings during a resting stage in their life cycle. Some resemble the resting stage of modern marine algae known as dinoflagellates.	(Moodies Group) South Africa
2,923,000,000 YBN	178) The Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes (FiRmiKYUTEZ) evolves (Gram positive bacteria: the cause of botulism, tetanus, and anthrax). Firmicutes is a phylum of nonphotosynthetic, mainly gram-positive bacteria. Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes are the two main groups of bacteria found in the intestine. Firmicutes includes rods and cocci {KoKSE} forms, and some form endospores. An endospore is a tough reduced dry form of a bacterium, triggered by a lack of nutrients, that protects the bacterium, and allows it to be revived after long periods of time.
2,920,000,000 YBN	288) The first endospores evolve; in firmicutes.
2,800,000,000 YBN	76) The Eubacteria Phylum Proteobacteria evolves (includes Rickettsia {the ancestor of all mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli {esRriKEo KOlI} or E coli {E KOlI}). The proteobacteria are the largest group of bacteria by far in terms of number of described species. There are 5 groups of proteobacteria: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon. The common ancestor of all proteobacteria is probably a photoautotroph.
2,800,000,000 YBN	177) Gender and sex (conjugation) evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo KOlI} bacteria. Conjugation is the exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor {male} bacterium through a pilus to a recipient {female} bacterium. This may be the process that evolves into eukaryote sexual reproduction. In addition to pili and conjugation, proteins that can cut DNA and other proteins that can connect two strands of DNA evolve. Some protists (cilliates and some algae) reproduce sexually by conjugation. If conjugation in eukaryotes descends directly from a proteobacteria then perhaps a proteobacterium is the ancestor of some or all eukaryotes.
2,795,000,000 YBN	23) The first virus evolves. A virus is an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. Viruses contain nucleic acid— either DNA or RNA and protein but cannot synthesize proteins, because they lack ribosomes. So viruses depend on the DNA duplicating and protein producing systems of other cells to reproduce themselves. The first viruses may be made from bacteria, or may be bacteria initially.
2,784,000,000 YBN	176) The Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS} evolves (also known as Planctobacteria). Planctomycetes are a widely distributed group of eubacteria that reproduce by budding, have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan like most bacteria, and some have a membrane-bound nucleoid, similar to the eukaryotic nucleus.
2,784,000,000 YBN	179) The Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu} evolves (the source of streptomycin and the cause of tuberculosis and leprosy). The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria, that are rod-shaped or form branching filaments, and include many soil bacteria.
2,775,000,000 YBN	174) The Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ) evolves (the cause of Syphilis, and Lyme disease). Spirochetes {SPIrOKETS} are helical heterotrophs that spiral through their environment by rotating, internal, flagellum-like filaments.
2,775,000,000 YBN	175) The Eubacteria Phylum Bacteroidetes {BaKTRrOEDiTEZ} evolves. Bacteroidetes is composed of Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped, mostly anaerobic, nonsporeforming bacteria that are widely distributed in the environment, including in soil, in sediments, sea water and in the guts, and on the skin of animals.
2,775,000,000 YBN	217) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlamydiae {Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E} evolves. Chlamydiae are parasites that can survive only within animal cells. One species Chlamydia trachomatis (TreKOmuTis} is the most common cause of blindness on Earth, and also causes a common sexually transmitted disease.
2,775,000,000 YBN	6309) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlorobi {KlOROBE} evolves (green sulphur bacteria). Chlorobi are obligately anoxygenic (cannot survive in the presence of oxygen), photosythesizing bacteria, that fix carbon from carbon dioxide into carbon compounds for cell growth, by using sulfur compounds, hydrogen, or ferrous iron as electron donors (oxidizing them).
2,775,000,000 YBN	6310) The Eubacteria Phylum Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo) evolves. Verrucomicrobia are found in soil, fresh and marine waters, and hot springs. Like Planctomycetes, some members of Verrucomicrobia also have intracellular membrane enclosed compartments, including a membrane that encloses the DNA.
2,730,000,000 YBN	80) Endo and exocytosis evolve. Cells can now eat other cells. In endocytosis the plasma membrane folds inward to bring substances into the cell. In Exocytosis substances contained in vesicles are released from the cell.
2,700,000,000 YBN	60) The eukaryotic cell evolves. The first cell with a nucleus. The first protist. The nucleus may develop from the infolding of plasma membrane. There are some differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells: In prokaryotic cells the DNA is concentrated in a region that is not membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid" while in eukaryotic cells most of the DNA is contained in a nucleus that is bounded by a double membrane. Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical bacteria are between 1-5 um in diameter, while eukaryotic cells are typically 10-100 um in diameter. Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton enables eukaryotic cells to change their shape and to surround and engulf other cells. Eukaryotic cells also have internal structures that prokaryotic cells lack such as mitochondria and plastids. DNA in prokaryotic cells is usually in the form of a single circular chromosome, while DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes contains linear chromosomes. Some organelles in eukaryotes also contain DNA; most mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA is also circular reflecting their prokaryote origin. Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably haploid (has a single unique DNA), most eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets of DNA). All protist, fungi, animal and plant cells descend from this common eukaryotic cell.
2,700,000,000 YBN	62) The earliest molecular fossil evidence of eukaryotes (sterane {STiR AN molecules). Steranes are formed from sterols {STeRoLZ}, molecules made by mitochondria.	Northwestern Australia
2,700,000,000 YBN	198) The endoplasmic reticulum evolves in a eukaryote cell. The endoplasmic reticulum (or ER) is a membrane system that extends from the nucleus, important in the synthesis of proteins and lipids. There are two distinct regions of ER: the rough ER (so called because of the protein-synthesizing ribosomes attached to it), and the smooth ER, which is not associated with ribosomes and is involved in the synthesis of lipids and the detoxification of some toxic chemicals.
2,700,000,000 YBN	214) Biomarkers characteristic of cyanobacteria, 2α-methylhopanes, indicate that oxygenic photosynthesis evolves long before the atmosphere becomes oxidizing.
2,690,000,000 YBN	207) The cytoskeleton {SI-Te-SKeL-i-TN} forms in the eukaryote cytoplasm.
2,690,000,000 YBN	208) The eukaryote flagellum and cilia evolve. The eukaryote flagellum and cilia are structurally the same but are very different from the prokaryote flagellum. The eukaryote flagellum is composed of a characteristic "9+2" arrangement of microtubules {mIKrO-TUB-YU-LZ} surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of the plasma membrane. Unlike the prokaryote flagella that rotate, the flagella and cilia of eukaryotic cells undulate in a wave-like motion to propel the cell. Some cilia are nonmotile and serve a signal-receiving "antennae" for the cell. The sperm cells of algae, animals, and some plants have flagella.
2,680,000,000 YBN	65) The circular chromosome in the eukaryote nucleus changes into linear chromosomes. Alternatively, the eukaryotic cell may descend from a prokaryote that already has linear DNA. Some extant prokaryotes can have a linear chromosome.
2,680,000,000 YBN	216) Histones evolve. Histones are proteins found in all eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order a single continuous DNA molecule into structural units called nucleosomes {nUKlEuSOMZ}. The nucleosomes are coiled into a 30 nanometer fiber called a chromatin, and then looped again around a chromosome scaffold into a larger 300 nanometer fiber which forms one of the two chromatids in a chromosome.
2,680,000,000 YBN	291) The eukaryote cell evolves two intermediate stages between cell division and DNA synthesis. In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take place uninterrupted between cell divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate their DNA exactly once during a discrete period between cell divisions. This period is called the S (for synthesis) phase, and is preceded by a period called G1 (meaning "first gap") and followed by a period called G2, during which nuclear DNA synthesis does not occur.
2,670,000,000 YBN	199) The Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves. The Golgi apparatus packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations. A vesicle is a closed structure, found only in eukaryotic cells, that is completely surrounded by a membrane but, unlike a vacuole, contains non-liquid material.
2,670,000,000 YBN	290) The nucleolus evolves. The nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus that makes ribosomes. The nucleolus, which appears as a dense area within the nucleus, contains the genes that encode (ribosomal or) rRNA and are where molecules of rRNA are synthesized. The nucleolus also assembles ribosome subunits from rRNA and ribosomal proteins. Ribosomal proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and transported to the nucleus for subassembly in the nucleolus. The subunits are then returned to the cytoplasm for final assembly of the ribosome.
2,660,000,000 YBN	72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote cells. Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic cell division in which the duplicated chromosomes are separated and the nucleus divides resulting in two new nuclei, each of which contains an identical copy of the parental chromosomes. Mitosis is usually immediately followed by cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm. The cell division cycle contains four stages, G1 ("first gap"), S ("synthesis"), G2 ("second gap"), and M ("mitotic phase"). The first three stages are called "interphase" which alternates with the mitotic phase. Interphase is a much longer stage that often accounts for 90% of the cycle. During interphase the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. In the mitotic phase, mitosis separates the chromosome pairs, and division of the nucleus is followed by cytokinesis. Mitosis is thought to have evolved from prokaryote binary fission and possible intermediate stages can be seen in some protists.
2,640,000,000 YBN	73) Eukaryote sex evolves. This is the first diploid cell and the first zygote. Because of sex, two cells with different DNA can mix providing more genetic variety. Having two chromosome sets also provides a backup copy of important genes (sequences that code for proteins, or nucleic acids) that might be lost with only a set of single chromosomes. Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which is initially the fusion of two cells and their nuclei, may first occur in a single cell protist that usually reproduces asexually by mitosis. Two haploid eukaryote cells (gametes, cells with one set of chromosomes each) merge and then their nuclei merge to form the first diploid cell, a cell with two sets of chromosomes, the first zygote. "Syngamy" {SiNG-Gu-mE} refers to gamete fusion and "karyogamy" {KaR-E-oG-e-mE} to nucleus fusion. In most cases syngamy is immediately followed by karyogamy. This fusion of two haploid cells results in the first diploid single-celled organism, which may then immediately divide back to two haploid cells. Conjugation, the second major kind of sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the ciliates, involves the fusion of gametic nuclei instead of independent gamete cells. Initially sex may be the fusion of two indistinguishable cells (isogamy) with gender (anisogamy) only evolving later. Although possibly eukaryote cell fusion and gender is directly descended from prokaryote conjugation. All sexual species alternate between haploid and diploid. There are three main different types of sexual life cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and diplontic. This begins the haplontic life cycle: in the entire life cycle the only diploid cell is the zygote and mitosis only occurs in the haploid phase. Most fungi and some protists including some algae are "haplontic"; they have a multicellular haploid stage and no multicellular diploid stage. Plants and some algae are "haplodiplontic"; they make both a multicellular haploid and multicellular diploid organism. Animals are "diplontic"; they make a diploid multicellular organism and no multicellular haploid organism.
2,640,000,000 YBN	206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis: a single cell division of a diploid cell into two haploid cells). Meiosis, which looks similar to mitosis, is the process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in reproductive cells from diploid to haploid, leading to the production of gametes in animals and spores in plants. Without the reduction back to haploid, genomes would double in size with every generation.
2,610,000,000 YBN	296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves. Anisogamy {aNISoGomE}, sex (cell and nucleus fusion) between two cells that are different in size or shape.
2,590,000,000 YBN	298) Oogamy {O-oG-omE}, a form of anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex between a flagellated gamete and an unflagellated gamete.
2,580,000,000 YBN	300) Diploid cell fusion evolves (Gamontogamy).
2,570,000,000 YBN	295) Two-step meiosis evolves (diploid DNA copies and then the cell divides twice into four haploid cells). Most protists divide by two-step meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare. Many of the steps of meiosis closely resemble corresponding steps in mitosis. Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by the replication of chromosome, but this single replication is followed not by one but two consecutive cell divisions called meiosis I and meiosis II. These two divisions result in four child cells instead of the two child cells of mitosis. Mitosis produces child cells that are genetically identical to their parent cells and each other, while meiosis produces cells that differ genetically from their parent cell and from each other.
2,558,000,000 YBN	171) The Eubacteria phylum "Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves (includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, and Deinococcus radiodurans {which can survive long exposure to radiation}).
2,558,000,000 YBN	172) The Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u} evolves. Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes with oxygen-producing photosynthesis, and are the ancestor of all eukaryote plastids (for example chloroplasts). Fossil evidence suggests that cyanobacteria existed as early as 3.8 billion years before now, but the genetic evidence places the origin of cyanobacteria here at 2.5 billion years before now.
2,558,000,000 YBN	315) The Eubacteria Phylum Chloroflexi evolves; (Green Non-Sulphur bacteria). The Chloroflexi are filamentous bacteria that perform anoxygenic photosynthesis.
2,500,000,000 YBN	52) The end of the Archean and start of the Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or ProTReZOiK} Eon. The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542 million years ago, and represents 42% of Earth's history.
2,500,000,000 YBN	56) Banded Iron Formation starts to appear in many places.
2,480,000,000 YBN	170) Bacteria live on land. Chemoauthotrophs oxidize sulfur or nitrogen to form sulfate and nitrate, and therefore sulfuric and nitric acids, which then dissolve rocks. Increased chromium levels in seabed sediments is evidence that acidophilic chemolithoautotrophic bacteria dissolve rocks and soils into a mixture of metals, including chromium, which are then carried to the oceans by the run-off of rain water.
2,400,000,000 YBN	59) Start of a 200 million year ice age.
2,300,000,000 YBN	47) Evidence of free oxygen accumulating in the air of Earth for the first time, the most recent uraninite {YRANninIT}, a mineral that cannot exist for much time if exposed to oxygen.
2,300,000,000 YBN	48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide formed on land, begin here, and are also evidence of more free oxygen in the air of Earth.
2,000,000,000 YBN	63) A parasitic bacterium, closely related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by an early eukaryote cell and over time a symbiotic relationship evolves within the eukaryote cell (an endosymbiosis) where the Rickettsia becomes the mitochondria. Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells, and are where cellular respiration occurs producing most of the ATP in a eukaryotic cell. In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative phosphorylation using oxygen to breakdown pyruvate from glycolysis into carbon dioxide and water, and provide up to 36 ATP molecules.
1,874,000,000 YBN	61) The earliest large filamentous fossil (Grypania). Grypania spiralis is about 10 cm long, and is thought to be either a green alga or a large cyanobacterium. If eukaryote, Grypania would be the earliest non-acritarch eukaryote fossil. Han and Runnegar, finders of this fossil, conclude that the best modern analog to Grypania is Acetabularia {aS-i-TaB-YU-lAR-Eu}, a large single-celled green algae. If true, this would make Grypania the oldest green algae fossil. They write "Grypania is interpreted as a sessile, eukaryotic alga that may have been unicellular but is more likely to have been either multinucleate or multicellular...". The Grypania fossils have no blade (leaf) or holdfast structures, but stretching implies that Grypania was a sessile organism connected to a surface. Similar fossils only 1 billion years old have been found in Montana, China and India.	(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA
1,800,000,000 YBN	46) The end of the Banded Iron Formation.
1,570,000,000 YBN	99) The first homeobox genes evolve. These genes regulate the building of major body parts in algae, plants, fungi and animals. In 1894 William Bateson coined the term "homeosis" for a mutation which causes a part of a body to appear in some different part. "Homeo" comes from Bateson's "homoeosis" and "box" refers to a "box" of 180 nucleotide code letters that all genes known as homeobox genes have somewhere in their length. The name "Hox", a contraction of homeobox, refers to a subset of homeobox genes, found only in animals, that determine position along the length of an animal's body and which are homologous in nearly all animals. For example, when a hox gene responsible for growing a mouse eye is added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo that is destined to be a leg, an extra fruit fly eye is built on the leg. A Hox gene doesn't tell a cell how to make an eye, but only that here is the place to make an eye.
1,570,000,000 YBN	197) The ancestor of all living eukaryotes divides into bikont and unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to all Chromalveolates, Excavates, Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.
1,520,000,000 YBN	202) The Protist Phylum Amoebozoa evolves (amoebas and slime molds); the first feeding using pseudopods (a temporary projection of the cytoplasm). The Amoebozoa include amoebas, both naked and testate (partially enclosed by a "test" or shell), and slime molds and are characterized by pseudopods. Slime molds will diverge into two main branches, plasmodial slime molds and cellular slime molds.
1,520,000,000 YBN	203) Colonialism (where cells form a colony) evolves for the first time in Eukaryotes. Many cells that form colonies are apparently identical but because each cell is exposed to a different environment, they transcribe different genes.
1,500,000,000 YBN	15) The first "plastids" evolve. Cyanobacteria form plastids through endosymbiosis within a eukaryotic cell. Like mitochondria, these organelles copy themselves and are not made by the cell DNA. Plastids provide the eukaryotic cell with food from photosynthesis and gain protection by living within the cell. This is a primary plastid endosymbiosis and so these plastids are surrounded by a double membrane. The inner wall of the plastid being that of the bacterium, the outer wall being that of the eukoaryote.
1,500,000,000 YBN	86) The first plant (ancestor of all green and red algae and land plants). This begins the plant kingdom. The first plant is probably unicellular, similar to the glaucophytes {GlxKoFITS}.
1,500,000,000 YBN	220) The Protists Opisthokonts evolve (the ancestor of all Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).
1,400,000,000 YBN	209) The earliest extant plant: Glaucophyta {GlxKoFITu}. Glaucophytes are unicellular algae found in freshwater. Glaucophyta probably branched off the evolutionary tree before the divergence of red and green algae from one another. Glaucophyte plastids represent an intermediate in the transition from a cyanobacterium endosymbiont to a plastid, because they retain the prokaryotic peptidoglycan layer between their two membranes.
1,300,000,000 YBN	188) The Plant Phylum Chlorophyta {KlORoFiTu} evolves, Green Algae: (ancestor of Volvox, Sea lettuce, Spirogyra, and Stoneworts). The green algae are the most diverse group of algae on Earth today in terms of number of species (having at least 7000 species). The first land plants most likely evolve from green algae.
1,300,000,000 YBN	219) The plant Phylum Rhodophyta {rODOFITu} evolves (Red Algae). Rhodophyta are unicellular and multicellular (reaching up to 1 m {or 3 feet} in length), and are mostly free-living but some are parasitic or symbiotic. Red algae are common and widespread, and are are ecologically and economically important (for example as a source of agar).
1,300,000,000 YBN	323) The Protists Excavates evolve: the ancestor of the Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS}, and the Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ} {which includes Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u}). Most of these species have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. However, mitochondria are thought by many to be lost secondarily because parabasalids contain hydrogenosomes and the diplomonad Giardia intestinalis contains mitosomes, both of which are descended from mitochondria.
1,280,000,000 YBN	38) (Filamentous) multicellularity in Eukaryotes evolves. In this organism, unlike single cell eukaryotes, cells stay fastened together after cell division. Multicellularity seems to have arisen multiple times independently in eukaryotes: in fungi, animals, slime molds, and algae.	(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada
1,280,000,000 YBN	85) Differentiation in a multicellular eukaryote evolves. In addition to gamete (or spore) cells, there are somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells, somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing). All cells of an organism are somatic cells, except the sperm and egg cells, the cells from which they arise (gametocytes), and undifferentiated stem cells. Cell differentiation is how cells in a multicellular organism become specialized to perform specific functions in a variety of tissues and organs.
1,280,000,000 YBN	210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves.
1,280,000,000 YBN	301) The haplodiplontic life cycle evolves in algae (mitosis occurs in both haploid and diploid life stages). This is also known as the "alternation of generations". Some algae and plants have a haplodiplontic life cycle; a life cycle where both diploid and haploid stages are multicellular. The multicellular haploid stage is called the gametophyte and the multicellular diploid stage is called the sporophyte.
1,274,000,000 YBN	187) A captured red alga, through endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the ancestor of all chromalveolates. This is a secondary plastid endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is captured instead of a cyanobacterium which results in a plastid with more than two membranes.
1,250,000,000 YBN	88) The Protists "Chromalveolates" {KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} evolve (the ancestor of the Chromista {Cryptophytes, Haptophytes, and Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ}} and Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS}).
1,250,000,000 YBN	201) The earliest certain eukaryote fossils and earliest certain fossils of eukaryote filamentous multicellularity: a bangiophyte {BoNJEuFIT} red alga fossil named "Bangiomorpha pubescens" {BoNEumORFu}. These are also the earliest fossils of a eukaryote that can reproduce sexually and that have differentiated cells (a basal holdfast).	(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada
1,200,000,000 YBN	221) The first fungi. This begins the Fungi Kingdom. Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic (unable to build structural materials by photosynthesis) and so must feed on other living things. Fungi live on organic material and are therefore generally parasitic (live or feed on another organism to the detriment of the host organism) or are saprophytic (live on dead or decaying organic matter). Some types of fungi, however, form symbioses with plants. Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually and like plants show alternations in their life cycle.
1,189,000,000 YBN	305) The Chromista Phylum "Cryptophyta" {KriPTuFITu} evolve (the cryptomonads {KRiPToMunaDZ}). Cryptophytes are unicellular eukaryotic algae that acquired photosynthesis secondarily through the uptake and retention of a red-algal endosymbiont.
1,180,000,000 YBN	6280) The Protists Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS} (the ancestor of all Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS}). These three protist phyla all have an alveolar {aL-VE-e-lR} membrane system, made of flattened membrane-bound sacs called "alveoli" {aL-VE-e-lI}.
1,100,000,000 YBN	75) The oldest extant fungi phylum "Microsporidia" evolves. Microsporidia are obligate (survive only as) intracellular parasites of eukaryotes. They most commonly infect insects, crustaceans, and fishes. Microsporidians have some of the smallest eukaryotic genomes known (around 2.3 million base pairs).
1,100,000,000 YBN	313) The Protist Phylum "Dinoflagellata" evolves. Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS} are single-celled, aquatic organisms that have two dissimilar flagella. Most are microscopic and marine. An important link in the food chain, Dinoflagellates also "bloom" which can produce luminescence seen in the sea.
1,080,000,000 YBN	87) The Excavates Discicristates {DiSKIKriSTATS}; the ancestor of protists which have mitochondria with discoidal (shaped like a disk) cristae (the folded inner membrane of a mitochondrion) (the ancestor of euglenids, leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ}, trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ}, and acrasid {oKrASiD} slime molds). In eukaryote mitochondria there are three kinds of christae: discoidal, tubular, and flattened. Discoidal are found in kinetoplasts and euglynoids. Tubular christae are found in diatoms, crysophyte algae, and apicomplexans. Flattened cristae are found in both green and red algae and in opisthokonts (animals and fungi).
1,080,000,000 YBN	97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first three-dimensional response to light. The earliest eye is a light sensitive area in a unicellular eukaryote that probably evolved from a plastid. Eukaryotes are the first organisms to evolve the ability to follow light direction in three dimensions in open water.
1,050,000,000 YBN	169) The Protists Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called Heterokonts) evolve (ancestor of all brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu)). Almost all Stramenopiles have unique three-part tubular hairs on the flagella at some stage in the life cycle. The name Stramenopiles (from the Latin stamen, "straw"; and pilius "hair") refers to the appearance of these hairs.
1,000,000,000 YBN	324) The Protists Mesomycetozoea {me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u} evolve (also called DRIPS). Mesomycetozoea are in the protist Phylum Choanozoa (which includes the Choanoflagellates {KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS}, thought to be the ancestor of sponges).
985,000,000 YBN	309) The Protist Phylum Oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu} evolves (ancestor of the Oomycetes; water molds). Oomycetes (or water molds), contain about 580 species, which vary from unicellular to multicellular highly brached filamentous forms.
900,000,000 YBN	6281) The protists Rhizaria {rI-ZaR-E-u} evolve (ancestor of all Radiolaria, Foraminifera and Cercozoa). The Rhizaria are an assemblage, or supergroup, of eukaryotes comprising mostly amoeboid protists, including ‘skeleton’-forming types such as the foraminiferans and radiolarians.
850,000,000 YBN	224) The Fungi "Zygomycota" evolves (ancestor of bread molds, and pin molds). The taxon Zygomycota is polyphyletic (developed from more than one ancestral type) or paraphyletic (composed of some but not all members descending from a common ancestor) and currently includes four subphyla.
767,000,000 YBN	312) The Protist Phylum "Ciliophora" {SiL-E-oF-R-u} evolves (the "Ciliates") (ancestor of the paramecium). The Ciliophora are characterized by having numerous cilia which they use to move themselves. Most ciliates are unicellular. Ciliates reproduce asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
767,000,000 YBN	314) The Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa" {a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su} evolves (includes Malaria and Toxoplasmosis). Apicomplexans have a special cell organelle called the apical complex which helps to invade the host cell.
680,000,000 YBN	326) The Protists "Choanoflagellates" {KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS} evolve. Choanoflagel lates are the closest relatives to the animals and may be direct ancestors of sponges. There are about 140 species of choanoflagellates. Some are free-swimming, propelling themselves with a flagellum. Others are attached by a stalk, sometimes with several together in a colony. Choanoflagellates use their flagellum to drive water into the funnel where food particles like bacteria are trapped and engulfed. This is different from their analogous cells, choanocytes of sponges where each flagellum is used to draw water in through holes in the walls of the sponge and out through the sponge's main opening.
670,000,000 YBN	286) Multicellularity evolves in a free moving Protist. This allows larger free moving organisms to evolve. This multicellularity is thought to be independently evolved, and not related to the earlier filamentous multicellularity of prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, and eukaryotes like algae.
670,000,000 YBN	297) The diplontic life cycle evolves; this organism is predominantly diploid, mitosis in the haploid phase does not occur. All animals are diplontic, and descend from this multicellular organism.
660,000,000 YBN	81) The first animal and first metazoan, the sponge evolves. This begins the Animal Kingdom, and the Phylum Porifera; the sponges. There are only three major kinds of metazoans: sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians. The word "porifera" means "pore bearing" in Latin, and water continuously flows through the pores in sponges. Metazoans are multicellular and have differentiation (their cells perform different functions). Sponges have cells that form a body wall, cells that secrete the skeleton, contractile {KunTraKTL} cells, cells that digest food, and other kinds of cell types. All sponge cells are totipotent and so are capable of regrowing a new sponge. In sponges there is no distinction between germ line and soma. Some sponges can live for over 1000 years. Sponges have two layers, each a single cell thick. The outer surface is called the pinacoderm {PiN-o-KO-DRM} and is made of cells called pinacocytes {PiN-o-KO-SITS}. On the inner surface is the choanoderm {KOenO-DRM or KO-aNo-DRM} which is made of flagellated cells called choanocytes {KOenO-SITS or KO-aNo-SITS}. Between these two thin cellular sheets is the jellylike mesohyl {mASuHIL}, which may vary in thickness and plays vital roles in digestion, gamete production, secretion of skeleton, and transport of nutrients and waste products by special amoeboid cells.
660,000,000 YBN	517) The male gonad (testis {TeSTiS} or testicle) evolves in a sponge. In sponges sperm are contained in spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte chambers transformed by the formation of sperm (spermatogenesis), but ova are distributed throughout the mesohyl {mASuHIL} (or middle layer).
650,000,000 YBN	41) The start of the 60 million year (Varanger) Ice Age (650-590 mybn).
650,000,000 YBN	69) Cells that group as tissues that are arranged in layers evolve in metazoans. Unlike the Porifera, in the Placozoa and all later metazoans, cells group as tissues.
650,000,000 YBN	79) The Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa" evolves. Placozoans look like amoebas but are multicellular. The only known species is Trichoplax adhaerens {TriKOPlaKS aDHEReNZ}. Trichoplax lives in the sea and feeds on single celled organisms, mostly algae. There are only 4 cell types in Trichoplax compared to the more than 200 cell types in humans. Trichoplax has two main cell layers, like a cnidarian or ctenophore. Between these two layers are a few contractile cells that are similar to muscle cells, however placozoans have no muscle or nerve cells. Trichoplax has the lowest content of DNA of any metazoan, about two-thirds that in sponges, and only 10 times that of bacteria, which implies that placozoa are very primitive. Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene.
650,000,000 YBN	223) The Fungi "Chytridiomycota" {KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves (includes all Chytridiomycetes {KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ})). The chytrids are primitive fungi and are mostly saprobic (feed on dead species, decomposing chitin and keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in freshwater) and some species are unicellular.	Northern Russia
640,000,000 YBN	83) The first nerve cell (neuron), and nervous system evolves in the ancestor of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This leads to the first ganglion and brain. This is the earliest touch and sound detection. This is also the first memory, because a neuron can store an electric potential. As time continues in the evolution of the metazoans, the number of neurons increases while the size of neurons decreases, showing that more neurons and smaller neurons, similar to transistors in a computer, give an organism more memory and as a result a selective advantage in survival.
640,000,000 YBN	96) Muscle cells evolve in the ancestor of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. Both the earliest known muscle and nerve cells are found in Ctenophores and Cnidarians.
640,000,000 YBN	225) A closeable mouth evolves for the first time, in the ancestor of all ctenophores and cnidarians.
640,000,000 YBN	414) The female gonad (the first ovary) evolves in the ancestor of Ctenophores and Cnidarians.
640,000,000 YBN	523) The animal Phylum Ctenophora {Ti-noF-R-u} evolves (comb jellies). Ctenophora were initially wrongly categorized as cnidarians, but unlike cnidarians, ctenophores lack stinging cells, there is no alternation of generations in the life cycle, and ctenophores are never colonial. Like the Cnidarians, the Ctenophores are diploblastic; they have two embryonic germ layers- the ectoderm {EKTeDRM} and the endoderm {eNDeDRM} which become the adult epidermis and gastrodermis, respectively. The middle mesenchyme {meSeNKIM}, a watery gelatinous fluid, never produces the complex organs seen in triploblastic Metazoa. The Ctenophores have biradial symmetry. The main body cavity of the ctenophores is also the digestive chamber, and they have a simple nerve net. On the surface of the body are eight equally spaced comb plates, called ctenes {TENZ}, each ctene is composed of a band of cilia. The ctenes provide most of the movement for the ctenophores. Ctenophores are hermaphroditic. Ovaries and testies differentiate from the endoderm. The gametes are released through temporary gonopores {GoN-o-PORZ}, and fertilization is external.
635,000,000 YBN	6413) The start of the Ediacaran Period. A large increase in the evolutionary turnover rate of acritarchs is thought to be the result of the evolution of the nervous system and gut in the eumetazoa (all cnidarians and bilaterians).
630,000,000 YBN	82) The Animal Phylum Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} evolves (the ancestor of sea anemones, sea pens, corals, and jellyfish). Cnidaria also evolve the earliest animal eye. Cnidaria are primarily radially symmetrical animals with tentacles, have a single body cavity with only one opening to take in food and to release wastes, and have specialized stinging cells. Cnidarians have two alternate body plans, the polyp and the medusa {miDUSe}. A sea anemone or Hydra is a typical polyp: non-moving, mouth on top, bottom end fixed to the ground like a plant. Corals are colonial marine polyps of the Cnidarian class Anthozoa that secrete calcareous {KaL-KAR-E-uS} (calcium carbonate) skeletons which they live inside of. The medusa form is upside down compared to the polyp form, and is free swimming. A jellyfish has a typical medusa form, swimming through the open sea. Many cnidarians have both polyp and medusa forms in a single life cycle. Polyps often reproduce by budding; a new baby polyp clone grows on the side of the parent. When cnidaria reproduce sexually, sperm are released into the water and fertilization is usually external. Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the gastrovascular cavity, but once the food is reduced to particles small enough to enter the digestive cells of the gastrodermis, digestion is completed inside the cell (intracellularly). Cnidarians have a nervous system which is a network without a centralized structure. They have no circulatory system. All cnidarians have cells called cnidocytes, unique to all cniadrians, each with its own cell-sized harpoon called a cnida that delivers a paralyzing sting when propelled into attackers and prey. Cnidarians have sensory cells that respond to light, chemical or mechanical stimuli. Each has a cilium that protrudes into the water. The sensory cells and nerve cells are separated by a small space (synapse), allowing the animal to generally respond to stimuli at a distance instead of responding at the site of the stimulus. Cnidarians see in black or white, because their eyes have only one pigment; for color vision the eye must have more than one pigment.
600,000,000 YBN	91) The start of the Ediacaran {EDEoKRiN} soft-bodied invertebrate fossils. The sudden appearance of Ediacaran fossils may relate to the accumulation of free oxygen in the atmosphere and sea, which may permit an oxidative metabolism. From around 600-560 MYA simple medusoid and frond fossils are found, after that tubular and bilaterian fossils are found. Because the Ediacaran animals are soft-bodied, they are infrequently preserved.	Sonora, Mexico|Adelaide, Australia| Lesser Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhsta
600,000,000 YBN	107) The Animals Bilaterians evolve (metazoans with two sided symmetry). This is the first triploblastic animal; an animal with a third embryonic layer, the mesoderm {meZuDRM}. This is also the earliest animal brain. In most bilaterians food enters in one end (the mouth) and waste exits at the opposite end (the anus). There is an advantage for sense organs like light, sound, touch, smell, and taste detection to be located on the head near the mouth to help with getting food. The earliest brain develops in a bilaterian worm. Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and Ctenophora, bilaterians are triploblastic. A third embryonic layer, the mesoderm, lies between the ectoderm and endoderm. This layer increases the options for the development of organs with specific functions. This begins the Animal Subkingdom "Bilateria".
600,000,000 YBN	403) The earliest extant bilaterian: Acoelomorpha (the ancestor of acoela flat worms and nemertodermatida). The Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track, anus and coelom. Flatworms have no lungs or gills and breathe through their skin. Flatworms also have no circulating blood and so their branched gut presumably transports nutrients to all parts of the body.
600,000,000 YBN	459) An intestine evolves in a bilaterian. Since the gut of this organism has no anus, undigested food must be regurgitated through the mouth. The intestine is lined with a single layer of endodermal cells that perform some or all of the processes of digestion and absorption.
600,000,000 YBN	532) A cylindrical gut, anus, and through-put of food evolves in a bilaterian. All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans except the Phyla Acoelomorpha and Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut with an anus, mouth, and through-put of food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta are the earliest bilaterians with an anus.
600,000,000 YBN	593) The genital pore, vagina, and uterus evolve in a bilaterian.
600,000,000 YBN	660) The penis evolves in a bilaterian.
590,000,000 YBN	70) The end of the Varanger Ice Age (650-590 mybn).
590,000,000 YBN	95) The coelom (SEleM) evolves in a bilaterian. The coelem is a fluid filled cavity that forms within the mesoderm and exists between the gut and body wall in most triploblastic animals. The advantage of a coelem is that it allows the body wall and gut wall to act independently, and also that other organ systems can be developed in the fluid-filled space. In addition, the fluid in the cavity can act as a deformable skeleton.
590,000,000 YBN	98) The first circulatory system evolves; blood vessels, and blood evolve in a bilaterian. The first blood cells. Cnidarians and flatworms are at most two sheets of tissue thick and so allow gas exchange and nutrient distribution by diffusion, but larger animals with thicker tissues require a circulatory system to distribute materials. The circulatory system transports molecules like gases, food, and waste to and from individual cells. In bilaterians with circulatory systems blood may be distributed by contractile vessels in the blood vessel walls, and/or by hearts. Circulatory systems can be divided into two kinds, "open", where blood and coelomic {SElomiK} fluid are together, and "closed" where blood and coelomic fluid are separate.
580,000,000 YBN	93) The Bilaterians Protostomes evolve. Protostomes are divided into two major groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu} and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}. The difference between protostomes and deutrostomes arises during embryonic development. In protostomes, the first indentation of the gastrula (an early stage of the embryo) develops into the mouth and the second indentation develops into the anus. The reverse is true for the deuterostomes.
580,000,000 YBN	105) The Bilaterians Deuterostomes evolve; the ancestor of all Echinoderms (iKIniDRMS }, Hemichordates, and Chordates.
580,000,000 YBN	131) The first shell (or skeleton) evolves. The first known shell belongs to a group of ciliates called tintinnids. Skeletons evolve independently in different groups of organisms. These are also the earliest known ciliate fossils.	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
570,000,000 YBN	311) The Bilaterians Chaetognatha {KE-ToG-nutu} evolve (Arrow Worms). The earliest teeth evolve. Animals start to eat other animals. The evolution of teeth and animal predation starts an "arms race" that rapidly transforms ecosystems around the Earth. Teeth and shells evolve as advantages to survival. On each side of the head Chaetognaths {KE-TO-natS}have a group of curved grasping hooks and one or two rows of teeth. Both hooks and teeth are made of chitin. Chaetognaths also have a pair of pigmented eyespots.
565,000,000 YBN	345) The Deuterostome Phylum Hemichordata evolves; The "Hemichordates", the ancestor of pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS} and acorn worms). Adult Pterobrachs are sessile, fastening to solid structures, but the younger (or larval) form is free swimming, and is thought to have retained this form before evolving into tunicates and then the first fish.
565,000,000 YBN	347) The Deuterostome Phylum Chordata evolves. Chordates are a very large group that include all tunicates {TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. Chordates get their name from the notochord {nOTe-KORD}, the cartilage rod that runs along the back of the animal, in the embryo if not in the adult. The ancestor of all chordates evolves "upside-down": unlike earlier invertebrates who have a ventral nerve cord (near the belly) and a dorsal heart (near the back), this ancestor and all later vertebrates have a dorsal nerve cord and a ventral heart. Probably a worm-like ancestor between the ventricords and dorsocords evolved upside down because the alternative theory of the internal anatomy reversing seems less likely. Chordates have four key characters: a notochord; a dorsal, hollow nerve chord; gill slits (also called pharyngeal {Fu-riN-JE-uL} slits); and a muscular, post-anal tail. The notochord is a longitudinal, flexible rod located between the digestive tube and the nerve cord. The notochord is made of large, fluid-filled cells encased in fairly stiff, fibrous tissue. The notochord provides skeletal support throughout most of the length of the chordate and provides a firm but flexible structure from which attached muscles can contract. In lower chordates and the early groups of vertebrates, the notochord persists as the axial support for the body throughout life, but in the higher fish the notochord is surrounded and gradually replaced by segmental vertebrae.
565,000,000 YBN	348) The earliest extant chordate: Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (also called sea squirts).
560,000,000 YBN	117) The earliest animal shell (or skeleton) evolves. This is the earliest evidence of animals eating other animals (predation). This begins the appearance of small shelly fossils and deep burrows correlated with a decline in stromatolites, possibly from feeding. The earliest animal shells are made by tiny organisms with simple tubelike skeletons, such as Cloudina and Sinotubulites in addition to sponge skeleton fossils. The shell of Cloudina is made of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and is possibly made by some kind of worm. Predatory bore holes have been found in Cloudina shells. This is the oldest evidence of predation known. In addition to its supportive function, the animal skeleton may provide protection, facilitate movement, and aid in certain sensory functions. In the many groups of animals that can move, body support is provided either by external structures known as exoskeletons or by internal structures known as endoskeletons.	(Ara Formation) Oman|Lijiagou, Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province
560,000,000 YBN	318) The Protostomes Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolve. Ecdysozoa are animals that molt (lose their outer skin) as they grow. This is the ancestor of round worms, and arthropods (which includes insects and crustaceans {also known as "shell-fish"}).
560,000,000 YBN	331) The Protostomes Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolve, the ancestor of all rotifers, phoronids, brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, entoprocts {eNTuProKS}, bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, platyhelminthes, gastrotrichs, nemertea, molluscs and annelids.
560,000,000 YBN	349) The first fish evolves.
560,000,000 YBN	6290) The earliest extant fish, the Chordates Lancelets {laNSleTS} (also called amphioxus {aMFEoKSiS}). This is also the first liver and kidney. Lancelets are the most primitive chordates to have a liver and a kidney, which are not found in hemichordates or tunicates. The Lancelet is different from a worm in not being cylindrical, and swims like a fish using its muscles with side-to-side undulations. Lancelets are not vertebrates. They have only a nerve tube on the notochord and no brain other than a small swelling at the front end of the nerve tube. They also have an eye-spot. Lancelets have gill slits at the sides that are primarily for filter feeding: water is drawn in through the mouth and passed out through the gill slits, which catch food particles that are then passed to the gut by cilia. So the gill slits only play a minor role in gas exchange (the absorption of oxygen and emission of carbon dioxide), which occurs mainly across the external body surface. This implies that gills that are primarily for breathing evolve later. Lancelets have no heart and blood is pumped around the body by contractions of the blood vessels.
550,000,000 YBN	119) The Ediacaran fossil Arkarua.
550,000,000 YBN	328) The Ecdysozoa Superphylum "Aschelminthes" {aSKHeLmiNtEZ} evolves. This includes the three Phyla: Nematoda (round worms), Nematomorpha (horsehair worms), and Priapulida (priapulids).
550,000,000 YBN	329) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Rotifera {rOTiFeru) evolves (the rotifers). The rotifers are tiny metazoans characterized by an anterior ciliary apparatus (the corona), and are most common in fresh water.
547,000,000 YBN	333) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Phoronida {FeroNiDu}, (the phoronids {FerOniDZ}). The phoronids are chitinous tube dwellers located worldwide in mild temperature seas.
547,000,000 YBN	334) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda {BrAKEoPiDu} evolves (the brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}). The Brachiopods are marine invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal and ventral shells enclosing a pair of tentacled, armlike structures that are used to sweep minute food particles into their mouth. Brachiopods are also called lampshells.
547,000,000 YBN	335) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Entoprocta {eNTuProKTu} {the eNtoProKTS}. The entoprocts are sessile, aquatic, often colonial invertebrates having a looped gut with both mouth and anus located inside a circlet of tentacles, a pseudocoelomate body cavity, and no hardened skeleton. All but a single genus of entoprocts are marine.
543,000,000 YBN	101) Segmentation evolves (body parts are repeated serially, for example vertebrae). Some think that segmentation evolved independently in annelid worms, arthropods, and vertebrates. But the universality of Homeobox genes, evolved over a billion years earlier, implies that all segmented species may share a common segmented ancestor.
543,000,000 YBN	336) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Bryozoa evolves; the bryozoans or moss animals. Bryozoans are tiny animals that grow in colonies that look like branches.
542,000,000 YBN	53) The end of the "Precambrian". The end of the Proterozoic and start of the Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK} Eon. The end of the Neoproterozoic and start of the Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK} Era, and the end of the Ediacaran and start of the Cambrian Period.
542,000,000 YBN	6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or "Cambrian explosion"), the rapid diversification of multicellular animals between 542 and 530 million years ago that results in the appearance of many (between 20 and 35) of the major phyla of animals. An increase of animals with shells. The Cambrian metazoan radiation may be the result of a major increase in atmospheric oxygen, and animal predation. The earlier Ediacaran animals are soft-bodied and so are infrequently preserved, but when animals begin to develop hard parts, their probability of preservation greatly improves. Two fossil locations preserve this period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in British Columbia Canada, and the Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of China.
540,000,000 YBN	104) The Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} Phylum Platyhelminthes {PlaTEheLmiNtEZ} evolves (flatworms). Platyhelminthes, which is Greek for flat worms, include 20,000 extant species of free-living and parasitic acoelomate (having no coelum) worms. They can reproduce sexually, and also asexually by transverse fission (splitting in half). Platyhelminthes are also hermaphroditic containing both female and male gonads.
540,000,000 YBN	319) The Protist Phylum "Radiolaria" {rADEOlaREo} evolves. Radiolarians are protists found in the upper layers of all oceans, are mostly spherically symmetrical, and known for their complex and beautiful tiny skeletons, called "tests". Tests are usually made of silica (SiO2). Radiolarian skeletons are used to analyze the layers of the sedimentary record.
540,000,000 YBN	321) The Protist Phylum "Foraminifera" {FOraMiniFRu} evolves. Foraminifera (or "forams" for short), are unicellular protists characterized by long, fine pseudopods that extend from a cytoplasmic body encased within a test, or shell. Shell sizes may be as large as 5 cm (or 2 inches) in diameter. Forams are the most diverse and most widely studied of microfossils. Forams are related to the amoeba but unlike an amoeba they have a shell. Forams secret skeletons of calcium carbonate (the mineral calcite), which is different than radiolarians which secrete skeletons of silica. Most are marine and live on or in the sea bottom (are benthic) but one family is tiny and buoyant and make up a major part of the marine plankton.
540,000,000 YBN	340) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu} evolves (ribbon worms). Nemertea are coelomate ({SE-lu-mAT} have a coelem) unsegmented worms that live in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. Nemertea have a complete digestive tract with an anus, and a closed circulatory system; some species having hemoglobin. They are capable of sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction by fragmentation is common.
540,000,000 YBN	341) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada {ToRDiGRiDe} evolves (tardigrades). Tardigrades are slow-moving, microscopic invertebrates, related to the arthropods. Tardigrades have four body segments, eight legs, and live in water or damp moss. Tardigrades are also called "water bears".
540,000,000 YBN	342) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora evolves. Onychophorans, known as "velvet worms", are the living transitional form between worms and arthropods. Although they have segmented worm-like bodies, they also have jointed appendages, antennae, and shed their cuticle like arthropods do.
540,000,000 YBN	6287) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Gastrotricha {GaSTroTriKo} Gastrotrichs {GaSTreTriKS}. Gastrotrichs comprise about 450 species of small marine and freshwater metazoans. Most species are less than 1 mm long, and are hermaphroditic or are known only as females that reproduce by parthenogenesis.
537,000,000 YBN	344) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Sipuncula {SI-PuNK-YU-lo} (peanut worms) evolve. The Spiuncula include about 250 species, most of which are commonly called "peanut worms". They are entirely marine and benthic (living on the bottom of a body of water) and are usually reclusive; burrowing into sediments, living beneath stones, or in algal holdfasts.
535,000,000 YBN	114) The first heart evolves in bilaterians. Muscles for pumping blood and for maintaining adequate blood pressure can be divided into three groups: contractile blood vessels (found in nemerteans and annelids), ostiate {oSTEAT} hearts (found in arthropods) and chambered hearts (found in molluscs and vertebrates).
533,000,000 YBN	343) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Mollusca evolves; Mollusks. The phylum Mollusca is the second largest animal phylum after the arthropods, and is divided into seven classes, three of which (Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu} (snails), Bivalvia (clams and muscles), and Cephalopoda {SeFeloPeDu} (squids and octupuses) are of major importance. The phylum name is derived from mollis, meaning soft, referring to the soft body within a hard calcareous shell. Soft-bodied mollusks make extensive use of ciliary and mucous mechanisms in feeding, locomotion, and reproduction. The Mollusca are a successful phylum with probably over 110,000 living species, more than double the number of vertebrate species. More than 99% of living molluscan species belong to two classes: Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu} (snails) and Bivalvia (muscles and clams). These two classes can make up a dominant fraction of the animal biomass in many natural communities, both marine and fresh-water. An early Cambrian fossil (Maikhanella) has a shell made from individual plates (sclerites {SKlR-ITS}) that are only loosely fused together, and this implies that over the course of millions of years these plates fused together to make the single, rigid shell of modern mollusks. Another early Cambrian molusk fossil (Neopilina) has a mollusk shell but still retains the segmentation of its worm-like ancestors.
530,000,000 YBN	338) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) evolves. Annelids are various worms or wormlike animals, characterized by an elongated, cylindrical, segmented body and includes the earthworm and leech.
530,000,000 YBN	339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda evolves; the "Arthropods". Arthropods can be compared to a segmented worm encased in a rigid exoskeleton. The phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. Arthropods include the trilobites, the crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and lobsters), the Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes), the Chelicerata (arachnids and horseshoe crabs) and the insects. All arthropods have a segmented body covered by an exoskeleton containing chitin, which serves as both armor and as a surface for muscle attachment.
530,000,000 YBN	350) The Chordata Vertebrates evolve. This Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains most fishes, and all amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. The characteristic features of the Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or backbone, and a cranium, which protects the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and major sense organs. This earliest vertebrate skeleton is made completely of cartilage.
530,000,000 YBN	351) The extinct Vertebrates the Conodonts {KO-nu-DoNTS} evolve. Conodonts have no lower jaw, but have calcified teeth positioned under well-developed eyes.
530,000,000 YBN	6637) The Vertebrates Jawless fishes evolve (agnatha). The earliest extant jawless fishes, the hagfishes evolve now. Hagfishes are eel-like scavengers that feed on the insides of dead or dying invertebrates and other fishes. Ovaries and testes occur in the same individual, but only one is functional; so hagfishes are not practicing hermaphrodites.
520,000,000 YBN	133) The Arthropod subphylum Chelicerata (KeliSuroTo) evolves (eight legs, ancestor of the horseshoe crabs, sea spiders, and the Arachnids: mites, spiders, and scorpions).	(sea spider fossils, Orsten) Sweden
520,000,000 YBN	148) The earliest color vision evolves in arthropods. Vertebrates with color vision include: some fishes and amphibians, many reptiles and all birds, but only a few mammals, humans and some other higher primates, can see in color.
520,000,000 YBN	346) The Deuterostome Phylum Echinodermata evolves; the "Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS }, the ancestor of the sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, and star fishes.
520,000,000 YBN	6349) The arthropods trilobites evolve. Trilobites are numerous extinct marine arthropods of the Paleozoic Era. Trilobites have a segmented body that is divided by into three vertical lobes. There is a transition, after the soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of the Ediacaran are the earliest small cylindrical shells of Cloudina and Sinotubulites in the Proterozoic, then the clam-like shells of the brachiopods in the Tommotian (Stage 2 of the Early Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and chitin shells of the trilobites in the Atdabianian (Stage 3). Trilobites are found as fossils throughout the world. One fossil arthropod, known as aglaspids, may be related to both trilobites and horseshoe crabs. Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs, but are members of the Chelicerata- a group that includes spiders and scorpions. True crabs are a family within the Crustacea, a different group entirely. So horseshoe crabs may be descended from trilobites.
513,000,000 YBN	6351) The Arthropods Crustaceans evolve (the ancestor of all shrimps, crabs, lobsters, and barnicles).	(earliest fossils) Shropshire, England
501,000,000 YBN	6348) The Arthropods Myriapoda {mEREaPeDu} evolve; the ancestor of all centipedes and millipedes.	(earliest possible fossils Marine deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA and (Ust-Majan formation) East Siberia|(earliest fossils) Shropshire, England
488,300,000 YBN	121) The end of the Cambrian (542-488.3 mybn), and start of the Ordovician {ORDiVisiN} (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.
488,000,000 YBN	6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN} radiation. During the Ordovician the number of genera will quadruple.
488,000,000 YBN	6635) The extinct Jawless fishes Ostracoderms {oS-Tru-KO-DRM} evolve. The Ostracoderms are the first vertebrates to have paired appendages, an inner ear with two semicircular canals, and bone, although almost exclusively in the outer exoskeleton. Most early ostracoderms are minnow sized, not more than a few centimeters in length. Bony plates are found on the head and trunk.
475,000,000 YBN	244) The non-vascular plants evolve, Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo}, (the ancestor of the Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses). The Bryophytes are the simplest land plants, and reproduce with spores. The Phylum Bryophyta contains green, seedless land plants that contain at least 18,000 species and are divided into three classes: liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. Bryophytes are distinguished from vascular plants and seed plants by the production of only one spore-containing organ in their spore-producing stage. Most bryophytes are 2-5 cm (1-2 in.) tall. Bryophytes are found throughout the surface of earth, from polar regions to the tropics, they are most abundant in humid environments, though none is marine. Bryophytes are extremely tolerant of dry and freezing conditions.
475,000,000 YBN	398) Plants live on land. The earliest fossil spores belonging to land plants. These are also the earliest non-vascular plant spores and look like the spores of living liverworts. Plants conquer land before animals do, and like animals may move to land not by sea but by freshwater.	Caradoc, Libya
472,000,000 YBN	402) The first animals live on land, the arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes).	(earliest arthropod tracks) Kingston, Ontario, Canada
470,000,000 YBN	234) The non-vascular plants Hornworts evolve.
465,000,000 YBN	6636) The Jawless fishes lamprays evolve.
460,000,000 YBN	235) The non-vasular plants Mosses evolve.
460,000,000 YBN	353) Jawed vertebrates evolve, Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo}. This large group includes all jawed fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. Jawed fishes have a skeleton made completely of cartilage. Only the teeth become ossified when mineral crystals, mostly calcium phosphate, become integrated into them. The jaw evolves from parts of the gill skeleton.	Oceans
460,000,000 YBN	404) The Jawed fishes Class Chondrichthyes {KoN-DriK-tE-EZ} evolves (Cartilaginous fishes: ancestor of all sharks, rays, skates, and sawfishes). Chondrichthyes has two subclasses: the Elasmobranchii {elaZmOBrANKEE or I} and the Holocephali {HoloSeFolE or I}.
460,000,000 YBN	458) The earliest fungi on land. The ancestor of all terrestrial fungi (the Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota).
460,000,000 YBN	6414) The Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota" {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves (arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR} mycorrhizal {MIKerIZL} fungi). Glomeromycota are also know by their class name Glomeromycetes {GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS} Although the Glomeromycota comprise a group of fungi mostly unknown to the public, they are essential for terrestrial ecosystem function. Members of this group are mutualistic symbionts that form arbuscular (pertaining to shrub-like trees) mycorrhizal associations (mycorrhiza are the product of a close association between the mycelium, branched, tubular filaments or hyphae, of a fungus and the roots of plants) intracellularly within the roots of the vast majority of herbaceous plants and tropical trees. This type of symbiosis is termed mutualistic because the fungus and host plant both benefit from this intimate association. The fungal symbiont receives carbohydrates from the plant in exchange for functioning as an extended root system, thereby dramatically improving mineral uptake by the plant roots.	Wisconsin
445,000,000 YBN	90) The end-Ordovician mass extinction. This is caused by an ice age. 60% of all genera are observed extinct. This is the first of five mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic. About 85% of marine species die. Many species go extinct, mostly trilobites, echinoderms, corals, nautiloids, brachiopods, graptolites, conodonts, and acritarchs.
443,700,000 YBN	122) The end of the Ordovician (488.3-443.7 mybn), and the start of the Silurian (443.7-416) Period.
440,000,000 YBN	236) The Vascular plants evolve, the Phylum Tracheophyta {TrAKEoFiTu}. Vascular plants have a specialized conducting system consisting mostly of phloem (food-conducting tissue) and xylem (water-conducting tissue), collectively called vascular tissue. The phloem transports sugar and the xylem transports water and salts. Ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants are all vascular plants. In contrast to the nonvascular bryophytes, where the gametophyte is the dominant phase, the dominant phase among vascular plants is the sporophyte. Because they have vascular tissues, these plants have true stems, leaves, and roots, modifications of which enable species of vascular plants to survive in a variety of habitats under diverse, even extreme, environmental conditions. This ability to flourish in so many different habitats is the primary reason that vascular plants have become dominant among terrestrial plants. The earliest spores of vascular plants date to now.
440,000,000 YBN	360) The Jawed fishes Class Osteichthyes {oS TE iK tE EZ}) evolves; Bony fishes, the ancestor of the ray-finned, lobe-fin, and lung fishes. Bony-fishes have a skeleton that is at least partly ossified or made of bone. The bony fishes are the ancestors of the tetrapods who will ultimately move onto land. The earliest bony fishes are the ray-finned fishes. The name ray is because their fins have a skeleton similar to a handheld fan. Other features include, in most species, a swim bladder (an air-filled sac to give buoyancy), gill covers over the gill chamber, bony plate-like scales, a skull with sutures, and external fertilization of eggs. Most of the ray-finned fish are known as teleosts, a very successful evolutionary line that exist in both salt and freshwater.	Ocean and fresh water
440,000,000 YBN	6172) The first lung evolves from the swim bladder in ray-finned fishes. Some teleosts still use their swim bladder for breathing out of water. Fishes that breathe with a lung evolve breathing through a completely different route than fishes that breathe air through their gill chamber.	Ocean (presumably)
425,000,000 YBN	377) The Jawed fishes, Lobe-fin fishes evolve. Lobe-fin fishes have a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin. The earliest extant Lobe-fin fishes, the coelacanths evolve now. There are 2 living species of coelacanths known.
425,000,000 YBN	401) The earliest fossil vascular plants, Cooksonia.	(Wenlock strata) Devilsbit Mountain district of County Tipperary, Ireland
420,000,000 YBN	6350) The Arthropods Hexapods (arthropods with six legs {3 pairs}, the ancestor of all insects). The closest relative of the Hexapoda is most likely the Branchiopoda, the brine shrimps and their allies.	(Rhynie chert) Scotland
418,000,000 YBN	6431) The Chelicerata Class Arachnida {araK-niDe} evolves (the Arachnids: the ancestor of all scorpions, spiders, mites and ticks).	("Bertie Waterlime" of) NY, USA
417,000,000 YBN	378) The Lobefin fishes, Lungfishes evolve. There are only six species of lungfish alive today. The Australian lungfish has a single lung, the others have two. The African and South American species bury themselves in mud during the dry season, breathing air through a little breathing hole in the mud.
416,000,000 YBN	123) The end of the Silurian (443.7-416 mybn), and start of the Devonian {DiVONEiN} (416-359.2 mybn) Period.
416,000,000 YBN	6352) The Hexapod Class Insecta evolves: the insects. The insects are the most diverse organisms known, having nearly one million named species, which is over half of all named species on Earth. Like other arthropods, an insect has a hard outer covering, or exoskeleton made of chitin, a segmented body, and jointed legs. Adult insects typically have wings and are the only flying invertebrates. The body of the typical adult insect is divided into three distinct parts, the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears three pairs of mouthparts, one pair of compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli), and one pair of jointed sensory antennae. The thorax is divided into three segments, each with a pair of jointed legs, and usually two pairs of wings. The abdomen has posterior appendages associated with reproduction. Insects breathe through a complex network of air tubes (tracheae) that open to the outside through a series of small valved apertures (spiracles) along the sides of the body. The simple circulatory system is composed of a tubular heart that pumps blood forward into the head, from which it diffuses through the tissues and back into the heart. The aquatic larvae of many insects breathe by means of external gills; some very primitive species breathe directly through the body wall. The most primitive living insect Order Archaeognatha, the Bristletails evolve now.
415,000,000 YBN	6427) Early vascular plants zosterophylls {ZoS-Te-rO-FiLZ}.
410,000,000 YBN	6354) Early arachnids: Trigonotarbids.	(Rhynie chert) Scotland
410,000,000 YBN	6363) The Insect Order Zygentoma {ZIGeNTOmu} evolves: Silverfish. Dicondylic insects (insects in which the mandible has two points of articulation with the head instead of one). Ancestor of Insect Order Zygentoma (Silverfish). Silverfish and all pterygota (winged insects) have dicondylic mandibles.
410,000,000 YBN	6428) Early vascular plants lycophytes {lIKe-FITS} and trimerophytes {Tri-mER-e-FITS}.
400,000,000 YBN	227) The largest Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves (the ancestor of yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, and morels {mu-reLZ}). There are 47,000 described Ascomycota species. The Ascomycota, or sac fungi, accounts for approximately 75% of all described fungi. It includes most of the fungi that combine with algae to form lichens, and the majority of fungi that lack morphological evidence of sexual reproduction. The shared derived character that defines the Ascomycota is the ascus. It is within the ascus that nuclear fusion and meiosis take place. In the ascus, one round of mitosis typically follows meiosis to leave eight nuclei, and eventually eight ascospores.	(Rhynie chert) Aberdeenshire, Scotland
400,000,000 YBN	237) The Vascular plants ferns evolve (the ancestor of club mosses, ferns and horsetails). Ferns are flowerless, seedless vascular plants that have roots, stems, and fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern), and reproduce by spores. There are around 12,000 species of Ferns. The life cycle is characterized by an alternation of generations between the mature, fronded form (the sporophyte) familiar in greenhouses and gardens and the form that strongly resembles a moss or liverwort (the gametophyte).
400,000,000 YBN	436) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass: "Elasmobranchii" {elaZmOBrANKEE or I} evolve, (the ancestor of sharks, dogfishes, skates and rays). The elasmobranchs evolve during the early Devonian, some 400 million years ago, and sharks have changed little over this time. Sharks diversify into many forms in the Carboniferous, and after a period of decline, have a second burst of evolution in the Jurassic, when most of the modern groups appear. The skates, rays, and sawfishes evolve in the Early Jurassic, some 200 million years after sharks.
395,000,000 YBN	6429) The Green Algae Charophytes evolve (Stoneworts).
395,000,000 YBN	6430) The earliest fungi lichen {lIKiN}. A lichen is a fungus, usually of the class Ascomycetes {aSKOmISETS}, that grows symbiotically with algae and cyanobacteria, resulting in a composite organism that characteristically forms a crustlike or branching growth on rocks or tree trunks. Because lichens can colonize and make cracks in rock, they may have contributed to the formation of the first soils. Lichens have a planet-wide distribution and thrive in some of the Earth's harshest environments, such as polar regions, deserts, and high mountains.
392,000,000 YBN	359) The Cartilaginous fishes Infraclass: "Selachii" {SelAKEE or I} evolves, (the ancestor of all sharks: includes great white, hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse sharks).
392,000,000 YBN	437) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass: "Holocephali" {HoloSeFolE or I} evolves, (the ancestor of the chimaeras {KiMERoZ} also called rabbit-fishes or ratfishes).
386,000,000 YBN	406) The Arachnids Spiders evolve.	(Givetian of) Gilboa, New York
385,000,000 YBN	405) The first forests. The earliest large tree fossils. The first progymnosperms (treelike plants), like Archaeopteris.	Gilboa, New York, USA
385,000,000 YBN	411) The first flying animal, an arthropod insect, the ancestor of all winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu}). The earliest extant winged insects are the Orders Ephemeroptera {eFeMeroPTRo}: Mayflies, and the Odonata {ODenoDo}: Dragonflies and Damselflies. Insect wings evolve only once, and all winged insects descend from the first winged insect. The development of wings may have helped early insects to escape predators and to move over larger distances to find new habitats. Insects are the only group of invertebrates that have evolved powered flight. Arthropods evolve flight at least 100 million years before the first flight of vertebrates. How flight evolves in insects is still debated. Wings may develop from extensions of the top of a thoracic segment called paranotal {PaRu-nOTL} lobes. Silverfish have paranotal lobes that can be used to control their descent when falling. Wings may provide early insects with the ability to glide, and eventually to control the aerial descent of the insect from tall plants.	(Wamsutta Formation) southeastern Massachusetts and Upper Silesian Basin, Czech Republic
380,000,000 YBN	6330) The lobe-finned fish "Tiktaalik" {TiK ToLiK}, an important transition between fish and amphibian.	(Fram Formation) Nunavut Territory, Canada
375,000,000 YBN	380) The Jawed fishes superclass Tetrapoda {TeTC-ru-PoDu} evolves. The first tetrapods (vertebrates with four feet) evolve in fresh water. These are the first vertebrate limbs (arms and legs) and fingers. This is also the first amphibian, the ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads, and salamanders. Almost no amphibians live in sea water.	Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)
367,000,000 YBN	408) The late Devonian mass extinction caused by an ice age. 70% of all species go extinct. This includes 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90% of brachiopod genera, and major loss of reefs.
363,000,000 YBN	379) The first vertebrates live on land (an amphibian).	Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)
360,000,000 YBN	226) The second largest Fungi phylum, "Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu} evolves (the ancestor of many mushrooms: button, chanterelle {saNTRreL}, cremini {KremENE}, enoki {inoKE}, fly agaric {uGaRiK}, oyster, porcino {PORCEnO }, portabella, psilocybe, puffball, shiitake {sEToKE}, woodear, rusts, and club fungi). The Basidiomycota phylum contains about 30,000 described species, which is 37% of the described species of true Fungi.	Indiana
360,000,000 YBN	6353) The Neoptera, folding wing insects evolve. A mechanism to fold the wings against the body after landing has a selective advantage by making the wings less conspicuous, awkward, and susceptible to breakage. The Neoptera are a very successful lineage and are the ancestors of all "higher" orders of insects.	(Fossil: Archimylacris eggintoni, Coseley Lagerstätte) Staffordshire, UK
359,200,000 YBN	124) The end of the Devonian (416-359.2 mybn), and start of the Carboniferous (359.2-299 mybn) Period.
359,000,000 YBN	243) The first plant seed evolves; the ancestor of all seed plants (Spermatophyta {SPRM-i-ToF-i-Tu}). The earliest fossil seed is from a seed fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM}). Pteridosperms are a group of extinct seed plants with fernlike leaves and naked seeds. Fossils indicate that the first seed evolves from an enclosing ring of vegetative lobes that fuse together. A seed can be described as an "integumented megasporangium". In the most primitive vascular plants, the spores are all the same size, but eventually gender evolves, producing small male "microspores" and larger female "megaspores". Then individual female megaspores are enclosed by a ring of vegetative lobes which form an integument or cover.	Scotland
355,000,000 YBN	6410) Hearing in Amphibians adapts to sounds transmitted through the air. This is the beginning of vertebrates making vocal sounds.
350,000,000 YBN	361) The Ray-finned fishes, Sturgeons and Paddlefish evolve.
350,000,000 YBN	362) The Ray-finned fishes: Bichirs evolve.
350,000,000 YBN	6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera {DiKTEoPTRu} evolve (the ancestor of Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).
340,000,000 YBN	384) The first hard-shell egg. The Tetrapods Amniota {aMnEOtu} evolve; the ancestor of all reptiles, mammals and birds and the first hard-shell egg. The hard-shell egg is waterproof. This is the start of vertebrate internal fertilization, because on land the egg cannot be fertilized as most fishes and amphibians do, by a male swimming near the eggs and spraying them with sperm. Amniote males and females must copulate {KoPYelAT} so that the sperm can reach the eggs inside the female. Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds) are distinguished from non-amniote tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence of complex embryonic membranes. One of these, the amnion, gives its name to the group. All living amniotes lay hard-shelled eggs, except most mammals and some snakes and lizards, where egg laying has been replaced by live birth. The egg shell of amniotes may be flexible (like the eggs of many turtles and lizards) or mineralized and hard (like the eggs of birds, crocodiles and many tortoises).	Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland
335,000,000 YBN	6331) The Amniota divide into the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} and the Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du}. The Sauropsida have two major lineages: the Parareptilia (turtles) and the Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds). The Synapsids also have two major lineages: the pelycosaurs (which are sail-backed amniotes) and the therapsids (which are mammal-like amniotes). Synapsids are a subclass of extinct amniotes from which mammals descend. Synapsids are sometimes called "mammal-like reptiles" but it is incorrect to call them reptiles because they diverge at the beginning of amniote evolution, before the reptiles do.	(earliest possible Synapsid fossil: Cumberland group, Joggins formation.) Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada
330,000,000 YBN	6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria {PeLiKuSOREu} evolve (the ancestor of Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS} and Dimetrodon). The most notable feature in some species of Pelycosaur is a broad "sail" along the back consisting of an extensive layer of skin supported internally by a row of fixed neural spines projecting from successive vertebrae. The sail may be a Sun light collector to heat the body and if brightly colored for courtship.
325,000,000 YBN	381) The earliest extant Amphibians: Caecilians evolve.
320,000,000 YBN	238) The seed plants: Gymnosperms evolve. Gymnosperms are the earliest surviving seed plants, and ancestor of all Cycads, Ginkgos and the Conifers). The most primitive extant Gymnosperms, the Cycads evolve now. Gymnosperm is Greek for "Naked Seed". A gymnosperm reproduces by a seed that is in direct contact with the environment, as opposed to an angiosperm (a flowering plant) whose seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits.
320,000,000 YBN	6356) The Neoptera Order: Orthoptera evolves (the ancestor of crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, and walking sticks). The Orthoptera and the later Hemiptera are termed hemimetabolous, and are said to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. In incomplete metamorphosis, the general form is constant until the final molt, when the larva undergoes substantial changes in body form to become a winged adult with fully developed genitalia. Many insects in the order Orthoptera produce sound (known as a "stridulation") by rubbing their wings against each other or their legs, the wings or legs containing rows of corrugated bumps. Orthopterans are the most "vocal" of all the insect orders, with calling behavior playing a major role in the biology and evolution of the order. Males regularly chorus on warm evenings for females.
320,000,000 YBN	6364) The Neoptera: Plectopterida evolve (the ancestor of Stoneflies, and webspinners).
317,000,000 YBN	385) The Sauropsid Class Reptilia {reP-TiL-E-u} evolves, the Reptiles; the ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds. The class Reptilia contains approximately 8,700 species and is a group of air-breathing vertebrates that have internal fertilization, and scales covering part or all of their body. All reptiles are cold-blooded, except for birds, and possibly some or all pterosaurs and dinosaurs. Most species have short legs (or none), long tails, and lay eggs. Living reptiles include the scaly reptiles (snakes and lizards: Squamata), the crocodiles (Crocodylia), the turtles (Testudines), and the unique tuatara (Sphenodontida). Being cold-blooded, reptiles are not found in very cold regions. Extinct reptiles include the dinosaurs, the pterosaurs, and the dolphin-like ichthyosaurs.	(Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia, Canada
315,000,000 YBN	453) The Allegheny mountains form as a result of the collision of Europe and eastern North America.
314,000,000 YBN	240) The Gymnosperms Pinophyta {PInoFiTu} evolve (the ancestor of the Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce, Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock, Larch, Yew, and Cypress.). The oldest known living plants are found among the conifers, some estimated to be around 5000 years old.	Wakefield, Yorkshire, England
310,000,000 YBN	6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera evolve (the ancestor of bark lice, true lice, thrips, and the Hemiptera {HemiPTRu}. The Hemiptera have mouthparts adapted for piercing and sucking and include: Cicadas, Aphids, and "true bugs": such as Bed bugs, and Stink bugs).
310,000,000 YBN	6359) The Neoptera Holometabola {HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu} evolve: Holometabolous insects: (insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the ancestor of beetles, bees, true flies, and butterflies). The holometabolous insects account for nearly 85% of all insects. The Holometabola are insects that have complete metamorphosis (or holometabolous development). These insects have four developmental stages in the life cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult (imago). Unlike hemimetabolous insects in which the immature structures (legs, eyes, antennae, etc.) must also serve the adults, holometabolous insects have a morphologically reduced larval stage and acquire a completely new body during the pupal stage. The larva is the defining feature of Holometabola.
305,000,000 YBN	242) The Amphibians: Anura {unRu} evolve (the ancestor of all Frogs and Toads). The order Anura, are tailless amphibians that include all frogs and toads.
300,000,000 YBN	1310) The Stramenopiles Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu} evolve (Golden algae).
299,000,000 YBN	125) The end of the Carboniferous (359.2-299 mybn), and start of the Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.
299,000,000 YBN	6360) The Holometabola Order: Coleoptera {KOlEoPTRu} evolves (the ancestor of the Beetles). Coleoptera is the largest order of all organisms known containing 350,000 named species; 40% of all the insects. Well known beetles include: Ladybugs, Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese beetles, weevils, and scarabs.	(Pennsylvanian deposit) Mazon Creek, Illinois, USA
290,000,000 YBN	239) The Gymnosperms: Ginkgophyta evolve (Ginkgos).
290,000,000 YBN	6358) The Holometabola Order: Hymenoptera evolves (the ancestor of all bees, ants, and wasps).
287,000,000 YBN	6308) The Synapsid Therapsids evolve (Cynodonts). The Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs and largely replace them for a time as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. The legs of Therapsids are more directly positioned under the weight of their body, which results in a more efficient mode of movement.
280,000,000 YBN	6365) The Holometabola: Neuropterida (the ancestor of all lacewings and snakeflies).
274,000,000 YBN	307) The Stramenopiles: Phaeophyta {FEoFiTu} evolve (the ancestor of all Brown Algae). Many of the Earth's familiar seaweeds are members of Phaeophyta, like the giant kelps. Brown algae derive their color from the presence, in the cell chloroplasts, of several brownish carotenoid pigments. With only a few exceptions, brown algae are marine. Note that brown algae are not plants but are protists .
266,000,000 YBN	308) The Stramenopiles: Diatoms evolve. Diatoms are microscopic unicellular or colonial algae, having cell walls of silica consisting of two interlocking symmetrical valves.
260,000,000 YBN	232) The earliest endothermic (or "warm-blooded") and hair growing animal, a therapsid. Endothermy is the physiological maintenance, by a body, of a constant temperature independent of the external environmental temperature. Hair for insulation is correlated to endothermy. Both birds and mammals are endothermic (also called "warm blooded") as opposed to other vertebrates (like amphibians and crocodiles) which are ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and cannot internally generate heat. Endothermy allows birds and mammals to maintain a high and relatively constant body temperature, even at rest, during a wide range of external environmental conditions. Respiratory conchae {KoN-KE} (or turbinates {TR-Bi-niTS}) (small curved bones in the nasal passage, some which reduce respiratory water loss with rapid breathing), found in the primitive therocephalian Glanosuchus and in several cynodonts, are the first reliable morphological indicator of endothermy.
260,000,000 YBN	364) The Ray-finned fishes: Gars evolve.
256,000,000 YBN	6362) The Holometabola Order: Diptera {DiPTRe} evolves, true flies, having a single pair of wings: the ancestor of the mosquito, gnat, deer fly, horse fly, fruit fly, drosophila, and house fly).
251,400,000 YBN	102) The largest mass extinction of history, the End-Permian mass extinction. 82% of all genera are observed extinct. The Permian–Triassic extinction event is the Earth's most severe extinction event, with up to 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct.It is the only known mass extinction of insects.
251,000,000 YBN	54) The end of the Paleozoic and start of the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.
251,000,000 YBN	452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe) forms.
250,000,000 YBN	241) The gymnosperms "Gnetales" {ne-TA-lEZ} evolve. Gnetales are thought to be the closest living gymnosperm relatives of the angiosperms.
250,000,000 YBN	368) The Ray-finned fishes: Bowfin fishes evolve.
235,000,000 YBN	304) The Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta" {HaPTuFITu} evolves, the Coccolithophores {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ}. Most haptophytes are coccolithophores, unicellular (flagellated) marine protists with calcified plates (or coccoliths) embedded in their cell walls. Some haptophytes turn parts of the ocean bright turquoise during their blooms.
230,000,000 YBN	6416) The earliest arthropod fossils in amber: gall mites (Arachnids) and a nematoceran fly (Diptera).	(near the village of Cortina in the Dolomite Alps of) northeastern Italy
228,000,000 YBN	412) The Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
228,000,000 YBN	611) The earliest dinosaur fossil, the Theropod Eoraptor. This dinosaur is a cat-sized meat eater.	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
228,000,000 YBN	6282) Dinosaurs divide into two major lines: the Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ} (Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and the Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ} (Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). Note that birds do not evolve from the bird-hipped Ornithischians, but evolve from the lizard-hipped Sauriscians. The Ornithischians will evolve into both bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters (herbavores), and the Saurischians will evolve into bipedal meat-eaters (carnivores) and quadrupedal plant-eaters.
228,000,000 YBN	6283) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN} Dinosaurs split into two major lines: The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu} and the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu}. The Sauropodomorphs are divided into prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly plant-eating, and include the large, long-necked dinosaurs like Apatosaurus. The Theropod {tERePoD} dinosaurs are bipedal and carnivorous and include Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and Velociraptor. All birds descend from a Therapod ancestor.	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
225,000,000 YBN	126) The Synapsids Mammals evolve. The first mammary gland. Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates that have four limbs (except for some aquatic species). The female has mammary glands, which secrete milk for the nourishment of the young after birth. In the majority of mammals the body is partially or entirely covered with hair. Other unique characteristics include a jaw hinged directly to the skull, hearing through bones in the middle ear, and mature red blood cells that have no nucleus. The earliest evidence for mammals is the fossil Adelobasileus, a 15mm skull found in Texas.	(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA
225,000,000 YBN	369) The Ray-Finned Fishes Teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolve. Teleosts are a large group of fishes with bony skeletons, including most common fishes. Most ray-finned fishes are teleosts. The teleost fishes are a very successful evolutionary line, with about 23,500 species, 30 times the number of shark species.
225,000,000 YBN	6370) The Holometabola Order Tricoptera evolves: Caddisflies {KaDiSFLIZ}.
220,000,000 YBN	387) The most primitive extant reptiles, the Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ} evolve: the ancestor of all Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins. Most Testudines are aquatic or semiaquatic, fresh water or marine, but lay eggs on land. They have webbed feet or flippers and their body is covered by a shell from which only the legs, head and neck, and tail protrude when needed. 220 million year old turtle fossils have an incomplete top shell indicate that the earliest turtle shell was made from broadened ribs, which over the course of time fused together to form the modern shell.
220,000,000 YBN	389) The reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ} evolve. The tuatara is a lizardlike reptile found around New Zealand. Like certain lizards, tuataras have a vestigial third eye on top of their head. Tuataras may live several decades longer than a century.	(Islands of) New Zealand
220,000,000 YBN	428) The first flying vertebrate, the Reptiles Pterosaurs evolve. Flight in pterosaurs, birds, and bats evolves independently. Pterosaurs actively fly (contracting their wing muscles to flap), as opposed to only glide. That some pterosaurs had hair is evidence that they may have been warm-blooded.
210,000,000 YBN	390) The Reptiles Iguania evolve: (the ancestor of iguanas, chameleons, and spiny lizards).
210,000,000 YBN	391) The Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve (the ancestor of snakes, skinks, and geckos).
210,000,000 YBN	6313) The earliest extant Teleosts: Bonytongues evolve.
209,500,000 YBN	489) The extinct Mammals Triconodonta {TrIKoNoDoNTo} evolve.
201,600,000 YBN	127) The End-Triassic mass extinction. 53% of all genera are observed extinct. Many terrestrial vertebrates and large amphibians go extinct. Large outpourings of lava from the break-up of Pangea may cause climate or sea-level change.
201,600,000 YBN	228) The end of the Triassic (251-201.6 mybn), and start of the Jurassic (201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.
201,600,000 YBN	6372) The Ornithischians Thyreophora {tIrEoFeru} evolve; the ancestor of the armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} and the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ}. One of the most primitive Thyreophorans is Scutellosaurus which has rows of armored plates along its body and tail.	(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA
201,000,000 YBN	6652) The earliest wasps evolve: wood wasps.
200,000,000 YBN	370) The Teleosts: eels and tarpons evolve.
200,000,000 YBN	392) The Reptiles: Crocodilia {KroKoDiLEu} evolve (the ancestor of Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans {KAmeNS}).
195,000,000 YBN	246) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN} Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ} evolve; the ancestor of the large, long-necked dinosaurs like Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus {BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus {DiPloDiKuS}.	western USA
195,000,000 YBN	6373) The Ornithischian Ornithopoda {ORnitoPiDu} evolve; the duck-billed dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs. One of the most primitive Ornithopods is Heterodontosaurus.
190,000,000 YBN	371) The Teleosts: herrings and anchovies evolve.
190,000,000 YBN	6289) The Supercontinent Pangea splits into Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern part, Laurasia will form North America and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana will form South America and Africa.	Pangea
190,000,000 YBN	6347) The Holometabola Order Lepidoptera {lePiDoPTRu} evolves (the ancestor of moths, butterflies, and caterpillars). The Lepidoptera comprise the largest lineage of plant-feeding organisms. The plant eating beetles form the other largest group.	Dorset, England
180,000,000 YBN	456) The earliest extant mammals, the Mammal Order Monotremata {moN-O-Tre-moD-e} evolves: the Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ}. Monotremes are an order of primitive egg-laying mammals restricted to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. The Monotremes consist of only the platypus and two species of echidna. Monotreme means "single hole" in Greek. Like birds and reptiles, monotremes have a single opening, the cloaca {KlO-A-Ko}, for the passage of liquid and solid wastes, the transfer of sperm, and, in the female, the laying of eggs. Except for their egg laying, they have mammalian characteristics, such as mammary glands, hair, and a complete diaphragm. After hatching young cling to the belly of the mother. Monotremes have no nipples, but milk is secreted for the young by mammary glands on the belly of the mother through openings in the mother's skin. Monotremes are also the most primitive extant warm blooded and hair growing species. The regulation of body temperature is less effective in monotremes than in other mammals.	Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
170,000,000 YBN	372) The Teleosts: carp, minnows, and piranhas evolve.
170,000,000 YBN	373) The Teleosts: salmon, trout, and pike evolve.
170,000,000 YBN	383) The Amphibians: Salamanders evolve. Salamanders include about 400 species in 10 amphibian families (the Order Caudata), commonly found in fresh water and damp woodlands, principally in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Salamanders are generally nocturnal, brightly colored, and are 4-6 in. (10-15 cm) long. Salamanders are able to regenerate a lost limb or tail, by cells in the damaged area changing back to slightly less mature versions.
165,000,000 YBN	358) The Cartilaginous fishes: batoidea {BuTOEDEu} evolve, the ancestor of all rays, skates, and sawfishes.
161,000,000 YBN	6369) The Holometabola Order: Siphonaptera evolves: fleas. The earliest fleas are much larger than modern flea species.	(Jiulongshan Formation) Daohugou, Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia
150,000,000 YBN	330) Stegosaurus, an armored, plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN} dinosaur lives around this time.	western USA
150,000,000 YBN	374) The Teleosts: Lightfish and Dragonfish evolve. Lightfish are characterized by luminescent organs on the undersides of their bodies. Bioluminescence is the emission of light by an organism or biochemical system. It occurs in a wide range of protists and animals, including bacteria and fungi, insects, marine invertebrates, and fish. It results from a chemical reaction that produces light very efficiently, giving off very little heat. In higher organisms, light production is used to frighten predators and to help members of a species recognize each other.
150,000,000 YBN	393) The Therapods {tERePoDZ} Birds evolve. The first feather. Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from China (~120 MYBN) indicate that feathers may have originally evolved on non-flying reptiles for insulation (or courting) and not for flight. At least one known feathered dinosaur can probably glide, which suggests that flapping flight evolves as an extension of gliding from trees. Birds have highly developed color vision. The evolution of birds may be responsible for the disappearance of large insects.
150,000,000 YBN	6374) Sauropod {SoRuPoD} dinosaurs are common; large, long-necked dinosaurs like Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus {BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus {DiPloDiKuS}.	western USA
146,000,000 YBN	490) An extinct major group of early mammals, the Multituberculata evolve.
145,000,000 YBN	245) The Seed plants angiosperms evolve. The first flowering plant. Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices come from plants with flowers. Tea, coffee, chocolate, wine, beer, tequila, and cola all come from flowing plants. Much of our clothing comes from flowering plants too: cotton and linen are made from "fibers" of flowering plants, as are rope and burlap, and many commercial dyes are extracted from flowering plants. Many drugs also come from flowering plants including: aspirin, digitalis, opium, cocaine, marijuana, and tobacco. Angiosperms represent approximately 80 percent of all the known green plants now living. The angiosperms are vascular seed plants in which the ovule (or egg) is fertilized and develops into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary. The ovary is usually enclosed in a flower, the part of the angiosperm that contains the male or female reproductive organs or both. The fruit is the ovary of a plant which encloses seeds. Aside from primitive flowers like the Magnoliids, most later angiosperms can be divided into the more primitive Monocotyledons (Monocots), flowering plants that have a single cotyledon (seed leaf) in the embryo, and the more recent Dicotyledons (Dicots) (also called Eudicotylendons or eudicots), which have two cotyledons in the embryo. The dicots contain two groups that account for two-thirds of all angiosperm species: the asterids, and the rosids.	Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly China
145,000,000 YBN	415) The earliest flower fossil is Archaefructus, a submerged wetland plant in China.	(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China
144,000,000 YBN	128) The end of the Jurassic (201.6-145.5 mybn), and start of the Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.
143,000,000 YBN	6288) The earliest extant Angiosperm "Amborella".
140,000,000 YBN	247) The Angiosperms Nymphaeales {niM-FE-A-lEZ} evolve, the Water Lilies.
140,000,000 YBN	421) The Ornithiscian Ceratopsian dinosaurs evolve (the ancestor of Triceratops). Ceratopsian dinosaurs are plant-eating dinosaurs. Later ceratopsians have massive heads armed with a sharp beak, long horns and a large sheet of bone that grows from the back of the skull.	Mongolia, China
140,000,000 YBN	457) The Mammals Marsupials evolve. The first nipple and breast. Marsupium means pouch in Latin. Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and crawl through their mother's fur into the pouch where they clamp their mouths to a nipple. The other main group of mammals are called placentals because they feed their embryos with a placenta which allows the baby to be born much later. The pouch is like an external womb.	China
138,000,000 YBN	248) The Angiosperms "Austrobaileyales" evolve.
136,000,000 YBN	249) The Angiosperms "Chloranthaceae" evolve.
136,000,000 YBN	460) The Birds Enantiornithes {iNaNTEORNitEZ} evolve.
134,000,000 YBN	250) The Angiosperms: "Magnoliids" {maGnOlEiDZ} evolve (the ancestor of nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and white pepper, camphor, bay (or laurel) tree, and magnolia.).
133,000,000 YBN	253) The Angiosperms Eudicots {YUDIKoTS} evolve (the largest lineage of flowers). Eudicots are also called "tricolpates" which refers to the structure of the pollen. The two main groups of the Eudicots are the "rosids" and the "asterids".
132,000,000 YBN	462) The Birds Hesperornithiformes {HeS-Pe-rOR-nit-e-FOR-mEZ} evolve.
130,000,000 YBN	375) The Teleosts: Perch, seahorses, flying fish, pufferfish, and barracuda evolve.
130,000,000 YBN	376) The Teleosts: cod and anglerfish evolve.
125,000,000 YBN	163) The Mammals Eutheria evolve: Placental mammals. The Eutheria are mammals that have a placenta. The placenta is an organ that forms in the uterus to aid in the exchange of food and wastes between the blood of the mother and fetus through an umbilical cord. Placental mammals include all living mammals except marsupials and monotremes. The placenta allows for a longer developmental period within the protection of the womb which may give the placentals a selective advantage.	(Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning Province, China
125,000,000 YBN	395) The bird beak evolves.	(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China
120,000,000 YBN	463) The birds Neornithes {nEORnitEZ} evolve (modern birds: the most recent common ancestor of all extant birds). Neornithes is the subclass of Aves that contains all of the known birds other than those placed in the Archaeornithes. Neornithes includes more than 30 orders, both fossil and living, its members are characterized by a bony, keeled sternum with fully developed powers of flapping flight (secondarily lost in a number of groups); a short tail with fused vertebrae to which all tail feathers attach; a large fused pelvic girdle; and a large brain and eyes contained within a fused braincase. In addition Neornithes have a fully-separated four-chambered heart and typically exhibit complex social behaviors.
120,000,000 YBN	6361) Bees evolve.
120,000,000 YBN	6653) The earliest ants evolve: the Hymenoptera Family "Formicidae".
119,000,000 YBN	251) The Angiosperms "Ceratophyllaceae", the closest living relative of all eudicots.
112,000,000 YBN	252) The Angiosperms Monocotyledons (or "Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants that have a single cotyledon (or seed leaf) in the embryo. Monocots are the second largest lineage of flowers after the Eudicots, and include lilies, palms, orchids, and grasses. The two main orders of Monocots are "Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".
110,000,000 YBN	416) Sauroposeidon, a long-neck (sauropod) brachiosaur lives around this time, possibly the tallest animal of all time, at an estimated height of 18 meters (or 60 feet).	Oklahoma, USA
108,000,000 YBN	254) The Basal Eudicots evolve (the ancestor of the buttercup, clematis, poppy {source of opium and morphine}, macadamia, lotus, and sycamore).
106,000,000 YBN	267) The "Core Eudicots" evolve (the ancestor of the carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, old world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa, spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony, witch-hazel, mistletoe, and grape plants.).
105,000,000 YBN	417) The Sauropod Argentinosaurus {oRJeNTiNuSORuS} evolves, possibly the longest animal of all time.
105,000,000 YBN	491) The Eutheria Superorder Afrotheria evolves (the ancestor of all elephants, manatees, and aardvarks). Afrotheres originate in Africa and are the earliest extant placental mammals.	Africa
100,000,000 YBN	464) The Birds "Tinamiformes" evolve (the ancestor of the Tinamous {TiNomYUZ}).
100,000,000 YBN	465) The Birds "Ratites" evolve (the ancestor of the ostrich, rhea {rEe}, emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, and kiwi).
95,000,000 YBN	419) The Therapod {tERePoD} Spinosaurus {SPINuSORuS} evolves, perhaps the largest meat-eating dinosaur.
95,000,000 YBN	498) The Eutheria Superorder "Xenarthra" {ZeN-oR-tro} evolves in South America, the Xenarthrans {ZeNoRtreNZ} (the ancestor of Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos).	South America
93,000,000 YBN	256) The Angiosperms: "Rosids" evolve (Basal Rosids include: the geranium, pomegranate, myrtle, clove, guava, allspice, and eucalyptus).
93,000,000 YBN	261) The Rosids Order "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ} evolves. Fabales include many beans (green, lima, kidney, pinto, white, black, mung, fava, cow (or black-eyed), popping), pea, peanut, soy {used in tofu, miso, tempeh, and milk}, lentil, chick pea (or garbonzo) {used in falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa {used as sprouts}, cassia {Kasu}, jicama, Judas tree, tamarind {TaMuriND}, acacia {uKAsYu}, and mesquite.
93,000,000 YBN	265) The Monocots "Base Monocots" evolve (the ancestor of vanilla, orchid, asparagus, onion, garlic, agave, aloe, and lily).
93,000,000 YBN	266) The Monocots "Commelinids" {KomelIniDZ} evolve (the ancestor of palms, coconut, corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye, sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple, papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK}, banana, and ginger).
93,000,000 YBN	274) The Angiosperms: "Asterids" evolve. The Basal Asterid Order Cornales {KORnAlEZ} evolves, the ancestor of the dogwood, tupelo, and dove tree.
93,000,000 YBN	275) The Basal Asterids Order "Ericales" {AReKAlEZ} evolves. Ericales is the ancestor of the kiwifruit, Impatiens, ebony, persimmon, heather, crowberry, rhododendron, azalia, cranberry, blueberry, lingonberry, bilberry, huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose, sapodilla {SaPeDiLe or SaPeDEYe}, mamey sapote (produces the sapota), chicle, balatá, canistel {KaNiSTeL} {produces the egg fruit}, new world pitcher plant {a carniverous plant}, and tea {the plant: Camellia sinensis {KemELYe}}
93,000,000 YBN	283) The Asterids Order "Apiales" {APEAlEZ} evolves; the ancestor of dill, angelica, chervil {CRViL}, celery, caraway, cumin, sea holly, poison hemlock, coriander (or cilantro), carrot, lovage {LuViJ}, parsnip, anise {aNiS}, fennel, cicely {SiSelE}, parsley, ivy, and ginseng.
93,000,000 YBN	285) The Asterid Order "Asterales" {aSTRAlEZ} evolves; the ancestor of burdock, tarragon, daisy, marigold, safflower, chrysanthemum (mums), chickory, endive, artichoke, sunflower, sunroot (or Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce, chamomile, black-eyed susan, salsify {SoLSiFE}, dandelion, and zinnia.
91,000,000 YBN	259) The Rosids Order "Malpighiales" {maLPiGEAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of gamboge {GaM BOJ}, mangosteen {mANGuSTEN}, coca {used in cocaine and in drinks}, rubber tree, cassava (or manioc {maNEoK}) {used like a potato, and in tapioca}, castor oil, poinsettia, flax, acerola {aSorOlu} (or barbados cherry), willow, poplar, aspen, and violet (or pansy).
91,000,000 YBN	260) The Rosid Order "Oxalidales" (the ancestor of the fly-catcher plant, wood sorrel family {leaves show "sleep movements"}, and the oca {an edible tuber}).
90,000,000 YBN	270) The Rosids Order "Brassicales" {BraSiKAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of horseradish, rapeseed, mustard, kale, Chinese broccoli (kai-lan {KI laN}), cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage (used in coleslaw and sauerkraut), Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi {KOLroBE}, broccoli, watercress, radish, rutabega, turnip, wasabi, mignonette {miNYuNeT}, and papaya).
89,000,000 YBN	262) The Rosids Order "Rosales" {ROZAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of hemp (cannibis, marijuana) {used for rope, oil, and as a recreational drug}, hackberry, hop {used in beer}, breadfruit, cempedak {CeMPeDaK}, jackfruit, marang {moroNG?}, paper mulberry, fig, banyan, strawberry, rose, red raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry, cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry, thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry, quince {KWiNS}, loquat {lOKWoT}, apple, crabapple, pear, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, almond, jujube {JUJUB}, and elm).
89,000,000 YBN	279) The Asterids Order "Gentianales" {JeNsinAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of gentian {JeNsEn}, dogbane {DoGBAN}, carissa (produces the Natal plum), oleander, logania {LOGAnEe}, and coffee).
88,000,000 YBN	284) The Asterid Order "Dipsacales" evolves (the ancestor of the Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, and the Corn Salad plant).
86,000,000 YBN	278) The Asterids Order "Solanales" {SOlanAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum (bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento), cayenne pepper {KI YeN}, datura {DeTRu}, tomato, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, and water spinach).	Americas
85,000,000 YBN	263) The Rosids Order "Cucurbitales" (KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins, squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut, cushaw {Kuso}, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti), zucchini, and begonia).	Americas
85,000,000 YBN	264) The Rosids Order "Fagales" {FaGAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of many flowers that produce edible nuts: for example Birch, Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut}, Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {used for wood, and cork}, Walnut, Pecan {PEKoN}, Hickory, and Bayberry).
85,000,000 YBN	466) The Bird Order "Galliformes" {GaLliFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of the Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant, Peacock, and Quail).
85,000,000 YBN	467) The Bird Order "Anseriformes" {aNSRiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of ducks, geese, and swans). The "Anseriformes" are an order of birds, characterized by a broad, flat bill and webbed feet.
85,000,000 YBN	499) The Eutheria Superorder "Laurasiatheres" evolves. This major line of placental mammals includes the Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs), Chiroptera (bats), Cetartiodactyla (camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos, whales), Perissodactyla (horses, rhinos), Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears, seals, walruses) and Pholidota (pangolins). The Laurasiatheres originate in the northern continent Laurasia.	Laurasia
85,000,000 YBN	6654) The Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} evolves (the ancestor of all Rabbits, rodents, tree shrews, colugos, and the primates).
84,000,000 YBN	454) The Rocky mountains start to form.
82,000,000 YBN	271) The Rosids Order "Malvales" {moLVAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of okra, marsh mallow {malO}, kola nut, durian {DUREiN}, cotton, hibiscus, balsa, and cacao {KoKoU} {used in chocolate}).	Americas
82,000,000 YBN	272) The Rosids Order "Sapindales" {SaPiNDAlEZ} evolves (the ancestor of the maple, buckeye, horse chestnut, longan {loNGeN or loNGuN}, lychee {lECE}, rambutan {raMBUTeN}, guarana {GWoR-u-no}, bael {BeL or BAL}, langsat {loNGSoT} {or duku {DUKU}}, mahogany, cashew, mango, pistachio {PiSTasEO or PiSTosEO}, sumac, peppertree, poison-ivy, frankincense, and the citris trees: orange, lemon, grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo, and kumquat).	Americas
82,000,000 YBN	420) The Ornithopods {ORnitePoDZ} Hadrosaurs evolve; the duck-billed dinosaurs.
82,000,000 YBN	500) The Laurasiatheres Order Insectivora evolves (the ancestor of shrews, moles, and hedgehogs).
80,000,000 YBN	422) The Therapods {tERePoDZ} Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ} evolve: Raptors. Raptors have large, hook claws on their feet. Velociraptor is one example.
80,000,000 YBN	482) The earliest extant Marsupials, the Order "Didelphimorphia" evolve (New World opossums).	Americas
77,000,000 YBN	483) The Marsupials Shrew opossums evolve.	Andes Mountains, South America (source)
75,000,000 YBN	423) Ceratopsian dinosaurs are common.
75,000,000 YBN	492) The Afrotheres: Aardvarks evolve.	Africa
75,000,000 YBN	505) The Laurasiatheres Pangolins evolve.	Laurasia
74,000,000 YBN	280) The Asterids Order "Lamiales" {lAmEAlEZ} evolves (ancestor of many spices: lavender, mint, peppermint, basil, marjoram {moRJ uruM}, oregano, perilla, rosemary, sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame, corkscrew plants, bladderwort, snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, and jasmine).
73,000,000 YBN	484) The Marsupials: Bandicoots and Bilbies {BiLBEZ} evolve; in Australia.	Australia
70,000,000 YBN	424) Two of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs known are common (both Therapods {tERePoDZ}): Tyrannosaurus rex {TiraNiSORuS reKS} is the top predator in North America and Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS} is the top predator in South America.	Americas
70,000,000 YBN	425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ} Ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} evolve (the shield back and/or clubbed tail dinosaurs) and are the most heavily armored land-animals known.
70,000,000 YBN	426) The Marine reptiles Mosasaurs {mOSeSORZ} evolve.
70,000,000 YBN	469) The Bird Order "Podicipediformes" {PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ} evolves (grebes {GreBS}).
70,000,000 YBN	493) The Afrotheres: Tenrecs and golden moles evolve.	Africa
70,000,000 YBN	494) The Afrotheres Elephant Shrews evolve.	Africa
70,000,000 YBN	507) The Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order "Lagomorpha" {loGomORFo} evolves: the ancestor of Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas {PIKuZ}. Rabbits were once classified as rodents, because they also have very prominent gnawing teeth at the front, but were separated into their own order called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and rodents are grouped together in a cohort named "Glires" {GlIrEZ}.
70,000,000 YBN	516) The Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Tree Shrews and Colugos {KolUGOZ} evolve.
70,000,000 YBN	1383) The giant bird-like Therapod dinosaur Gigantoraptor {JIGaNTOraPTR} evolves.
66,000,000 YBN	120) The largest Pterosaur and largest flying animal ever known, Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS} evolves. Quetzalcoatlus has a wing span of 12 meters (40 feet).
65,500,000 YBN	129) The End-Cretaceous mass extinction. 47% of all genera are observed extinct. Made extinct are: 60% of plant species, and all dinosaurs, mosasaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs {PlESEoSORZ} and pliosaurs {PlIoSORZ}. A comet or meteor collides with the Earth in what is now the Yucatan {YUKoTaN} Peninsula of Mexico and huge amounts of lava erupt from India. No large animals survive on land, in the air, or in the sea.
65,500,000 YBN	397) The end of the Mesozoic and start of the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn) Period.
65,000,000 YBN	429) The start of the rapid diversification of mammals. There is a rapid increase in new species of fossil mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are small.
65,000,000 YBN	468) The Bird Order "Gruiformes" {GrUiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of cranes, rails, and bustards {BuSTRDZ}).
65,000,000 YBN	485) Marsupial moles evolve.	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	486) The Marsupials Tasmanian Devil and Numbat {nuMBaT} evolve.	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	488) The Marsupial Order "Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolves (the ancestor of Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, and Koalas).	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	508) The Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order "Rodentia" evolve; rodents. The Rodents: "Myomorpha" {MIemORFu} evolve (the ancestor of rats, mice, gerbils, voles {VOLZ}, lemmings, and hamsters). Rodents are an order of mammals characterized by a single pair of ever-growing upper and lower front teeth (incisors).
63,000,000 YBN	587) The Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ} Order Primates evolve, most likely in Africa or the Indian subcontinent. The first opposable thumb. The primates contains more than 300 species, including monkeys, apes, and humans. The primates are one of the most diverse orders of mammals on Earth. They include the lemurs, the lorises, the tarsiers, the New World monkeys, the Old World monkeys, and the apes and humans.	Africa or India
60,000,000 YBN	430) In South America, the Andes mountains start to form.
60,000,000 YBN	432) The cat-like Laurasiatheres Creodonts {KrEuDoNTS} are common.
60,000,000 YBN	470) The Bird Order "Strigiformes" {STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
60,000,000 YBN	504) The Laurasiatheres Order "Carnivora" evolves (the ancestor of Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas, Seals, and Walruses).	Laurasia
59,000,000 YBN	496) The Afrotheres Hyraxes evolve.	Africa
58,000,000 YBN	524) The Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ} evolve.
55,000,000 YBN	435) The Rhinoceros-like Placental mammals Uintatherium {YUiNTutEREuM} are the largest land animals at this time.
55,000,000 YBN	471) The Bird Order "Apodiformes" {oPoD-i-FORmEZ} evolves (hummingbirds, and swifts).
55,000,000 YBN	476) The Bird Order "Piciformes" {PESiFORmEZ} evolves (woodpeckers, and toucans).
55,000,000 YBN	477) The Bird Order "Passeriformes" {PaSRiFORmEZ} evolves (perching songbirds). This order includes many common birds: for example crows, jays, sparrows, warblers, mockingbirds, wrens, robins, orioles, bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ}, larks, swallows, and finches. More than half of all species of birds are passerines. With around 5,400 species, passerines are roughly twice as diverse as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia.	(earliest fossils) Australia|Gondwana
55,000,000 YBN	495) The Afrotheres Order Proboscidea {PrO-Be-SiD-E-e} evolves (the ancestor of Mammoths, Mastodons, and Elephants).	Algeria, Africa|Africa
55,000,000 YBN	497) The Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong evolve.
55,000,000 YBN	502) The Laurasiatheres "Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu} evolve (the ancestor of all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu}: camels, pigs, ruminants, hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu}: Whales, and Dolphins). Hippos are the closest living land relative of the whales and dolphins. Cetartiodactyla is an unranked taxonomic group, equivalent to a superorder, containing the orders Artiodactyla and Cetacea. It is proposed on the basis of molecular evidence suggesting a close evolutionary relationship between the two orders.	Laurasia
55,000,000 YBN	503) The Laurasiatheres "Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu} evolve (also called "odd-toed ungulates") {uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS} (the ancestor of all Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ }, and Rhinos). Perissodactyla is an order of herbivorous, odd-toed, hoofed mammals, most of which have either one or three toes on each foot.	Laurasia
55,000,000 YBN	509) The Rodents: Beavers, Pocket gophers, Pocket mice and kangaroo rats evolve.
55,000,000 YBN	510) Rodents: Springhares and Scaly-tailed Squirrels.
55,000,000 YBN	511) The Rodents: Dormouse, Mountain Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT} evolve.
55,000,000 YBN	512) The Rodents: Gundis {GuNDEZ} evolve.
55,000,000 YBN	585) The Bird Order Psittaciformes {SiTaS-iFORmEZ} evolves (Parrots).
55,000,000 YBN	6381) The Perissodactyla Horses evolve. The earliest fossil horse, Hyractotherium, is about the size of a dog.
55,000,000 YBN	6387) The Ruminants Giraffes evolve.
54,000,000 YBN	810) The last common ancestor between hippos with dolphins and whales.
53,500,000 YBN	812) The earliest marine mammal (and earliest whale) "Himalayacetus".	(Subathu Formation) Northern India
52,000,000 YBN	501) The Laurasiatheres Order "Chiroptera" {KIroPTRu} evolves (the ancestor of fruit bats, and echolocating bats).	Laurasia
51,000,000 YBN	513) The Rodents: Old World Porcupines evolve.
50,000,000 YBN	438) The Himalayan {HiMolAYeN} mountains start to form as India collides with Eurasia. This will continue for millions of years.	Himalyia Mountains, India
50,000,000 YBN	518) The Primates: Lorises {LORiSEZ}, Bushbabies, and Pottos {PoTTOZ} evolve.
50,000,000 YBN	816) The early whale Ambulocetus evolves.
50,000,000 YBN	6382) The first camels.	Laurasia
50,000,000 YBN	6383) The first rhinos.	Laurasia
49,000,000 YBN	439) The largest meat-eating land animals are flightless birds.
49,000,000 YBN	472) The Bird Order "Caprimulgiformes" evolves (the ancestor of nightjars, night hawks, potoos, and oilbirds).
49,000,000 YBN	474) The Bird Order "Falconiformes" {FaLKoNiFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of falcons, hawks, eagles, and Old World vultures).
49,000,000 YBN	514) The Rodents: African mole rats, cane rats, and dassie rats evolve.
49,000,000 YBN	515) The Rodents: New World porcupines, guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ}, and capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ} evolve.
45,000,000 YBN	519) The Primates: Aye-ayes {I-IZ} evolve.
40,000,000 YBN	440) The Alpine mountains start to form.	Alpine mountains
40,000,000 YBN	525) The Primates "New World Monkeys" evolve (the ancestor of the Sakis, Spider, Howler and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU CiNZ}, and Tamarins). The ancestor of all New World monkeys probably originates in Africa, but all surviving descendants now live in the Americas, which suggests that a small group of New World monkeys got across the early Atlantic Ocean to South America, perhaps by rafting on fallen trees over a chain of islands.	Africa
37,000,000 YBN	442) The Carnivora: Dogs evolve.
37,000,000 YBN	473) The Bird Order "Coliiformes" {KolAiFORmEZ} evolves (mouse birds).
37,000,000 YBN	475) The Bird Order Cuculiformes {KUKUliFORmEZ} evolves (the ancestor of cuckoos, and roadrunners).
37,000,000 YBN	796) The largest terrestrial carnivorous mammal known, the Laurasiatheres Andrewsarchus evolves.	Mongolia, Asia
35,000,000 YBN	6384) The Xenarthrans Ground sloths evolve.
34,000,000 YBN	813) Toothed and Baleen whale lines split. Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm, and killer whales. Baleen whales include blue, humpback, and gray whales.
30,000,000 YBN	443) The largest land mammal ever known, the hornless Rhinoceros, Paraceratherium lives at this time.	India
30,000,000 YBN	444) The Carnivora cats evolve.
30,000,000 YBN	520) The Primates: True Lemurs evolve.
30,000,000 YBN	6385) The first pigs evolve.
27,000,000 YBN	521) The Primates: Wooly and Leaping Lemurs evolve.
25,000,000 YBN	522) The Primates: Sportive, Mouse, and Dwarf Lemurs evolve.
25,000,000 YBN	531) The Primates "Old World Monkeys" evolve (the ancestor of the Macaques, Baboons, Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus {KoLiBeS} monkeys). This is also the last common ancestor of the Old World monkeys and the hominoids, which includes apes and humans.	(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa
25,000,000 YBN	6386) The first deer evolves.
24,000,000 YBN	662) The ancestor of all Hominoids (Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.
23,000,000 YBN	478) The Monotreme: Echidna evolves.	Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
23,000,000 YBN	479) The Monotreme: Duck-Billed Platypus evolves.	Australia and Tasmania
22,000,000 YBN	526) The New World Monkeys: Sakis, Uakaris {WoKoREZ}, and Titis {TETEZ}.
22,000,000 YBN	527) The New World Monkeys: Howler, Spider and Woolly monkeys.
22,000,000 YBN	528) The New World Monkeys: Capuchins {KaPYUCiNZ} and Squirrel monkeys.	Americas
22,000,000 YBN	558) The Hominoid Afropithecus evolves in Africa.
22,000,000 YBN	559) The Hominoid Proconsul evolves in East Africa.
21,000,000 YBN	529) The New World Monkeys: Night (or Owl) monkeys evolve.
21,000,000 YBN	530) The New World Monkeys: Tamarins {TaMariNZ} and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS} evolve.
21,000,000 YBN	556) The Hominoid Kenyapithecus evolves in Africa.
20,000,000 YBN	549) The ancestor of all Homonids may move (over land) from Africa into Eurasia.
18,000,000 YBN	537) The Hominoids: Gibbons evolve in South-east Asia.	South-East Asia
15,000,000 YBN	6388) The first Kangeroos evolve.	Australia
15,000,000 YBN	6389) The first bovids {BOViDZ} evolve (hollow-horned ruminants: oxen, antelopes, sheep, cattle, and goats).
15,000,000 YBN	6390) The first hippos evolve.
14,000,000 YBN	542) The earliest extant Hominids: Orangutans evolve in South-East Asia.	South-East Asia
10,500,000 YBN	538) The Gibbons: Crested Gibbons evolve.	South-East Asia
10,500,000 YBN	550) The ancestor of all Gorillas, Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may move over land from Eurasia back into Africa.
10,000,000 YBN	533) The Old World Monkeys: Colobus {KoLiBeS} monkeys evolve.	Africa
10,000,000 YBN	534) The Old World Monkeys: Langurs {LoNGURZ} and Proboscis monkeys evolve.	Asia
10,000,000 YBN	535) The Old World Monkeys: Guenons {GenONZ} evolve.
10,000,000 YBN	543) The Hominids: Gorillas evolve in Africa.	Africa
7,750,000 YBN	539) The Gibbons: Siamangs {SEumANGZ} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	540) The Gibbons: Hylobates {HIlOBATEZ} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	541) The Gibbons: Hoolocks {HUleKS} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	544) The Hominids: Chimpanzees evolve in Africa. This is the last common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.	Africa
6,000,000 YBN	1490) The largest flying bird ever known lives in Argentina, Argentavis.	Argentina
4,400,000 YBN	546) The Hominid: Ardipithecus evolves. The earliest bipedal primate. Some theories to explain why bipedalism evolved are: that hands are freed to carry food home, for later use or for others (a leopard uses its jaws), that hands are freed to use weapons, that walking may be more efficient in traveling long distances, and as a sexual selection. Hominids walking upright on two legs, away from a life in the trees, may signal that they have become the top of the food chain on land as the result of using weapons.	Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya, Africa
4,000,000 YBN	547) The Hominid: Australopithecus (x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS} evolves.	Sterkfontein, South Africa
SCIENCE
3,390,000 YBN	269) Hominids use stones as tools. Some people may cite the use of stones as tools by hominids as the start of science on Earth, but perhaps a living object simply learning to take advantage of its environment may be thought of as the start of science. If true, then science is at least as old as the first nerve cell.	Dikika, Ethiopia
3,000,000 YBN	446) North and South America connect.
2,700,000 YBN	564) The Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa raN tru PuS} evolves; a line of extinct early bipedal hominids.	Africa
2,500,000 YBN	455) The oldest formed stone tools. The start of the Paleolithic or "Old Stone Age".	Gona, Ethiopia
2,200,000 YBN	447) The first humans. The Hominid: Homo habilis evolves (the earliest member of the genus "Homo"). This is when the human brain begins to get bigger.	(Kenya and Tanzania) Africa
2,000,000 YBN	545) The Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ} evolve.	Africa
1,800,000 YBN	130) The end of the Tertiary {TRsEARE} (65-1.8 mybn), and start of the Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE} (1.8 mybn-now) Period.
1,800,000 YBN	563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS} evolves in Africa. Some people call Homo Erectus in Africa, "Homo Ergaster", and think that Ergaster leaves Africa and evolves into Homo erectus in Asia, and into Homo Neaderthalensis in Europe and western Asia.	Lake Turkana, East Africa
1,700,000 YBN	449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia from Africa.
1,500,000 YBN	583) The controlled use of fire by Hominids. Controlled fires may be made first by Australopithecus or Homo erectus.	(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South Africa
1,000,000 YBN	554) The Hominoid Gigantopithecus {JIGaNTOPitiKuS} evolves, the largest ape known.	China, Vietnam and India
1,000,000 YBN	589) Homo erectus evolves far less body hair, except on the head, face, airpit, chest, and groin.
1,000,000 YBN	6467) Homo erectus reaches China.	Gongwangling, Lantian County, Shaanxi Province, China
970,000 YBN	200) Humans wear clothing. That archaic humans wear clothing at this time is implied by the cold climate that occurs at the same time that stone tools found in the area are used.	Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK
400,000 YBN	615) The earliest evidence of spears.	Kathu Pan 1, South Africa|(Schöningen, Germany.)
302,000 YBN	6517) There are 1 million humans on Earth, all hunter-gathering people.
200,000 YBN	548) Homo sapiens evolve in Africa. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils (Omo I and II) are from Ethiopia.	Ethiopia, Africa
200,000 YBN	590) The Human language of thirty short sounds begins to develop. All words are single syllable. Vowel sounds (U, o, and E) may be in use. This is the beginning of the transition from the verbal language of chimpanzees and monkeys, to the language humans use now, which has shorter sound duration and a larger number of sounds. The majority of the 40 or so basic sounds in human language (U, o, K, S, etc.) are probably learned before humans leave Africa, because although words vary, all humans use the same base sounds. Humans start to give names to objects (nouns) and actions (verbs).
190,000 YBN	601) The "Stop" family of sounds are in use; the sounds made by the letters B, D, G, K, P and T (in other words the sounds /B/, /D/, /G/, /K/, /P/, and /T/ are in use).
170,000 YBN	600) Humans use the S sound.
150,000 YBN	592) Humans use the sounds represented by the letters M, N, L, and R.
130,000 YBN	450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in Europe and Western Asia.	Europe and Western Asia
120,000 YBN	572) The start of the Wurm glaciation, which connects a land bridge between Asia and America.
101,000 YBN [99000 BC]	594) Homo sapiens move out of Africa into Eurasia. This is the beginning of differences in race within the human species.
100,000 YBN [98000 BC]	257) The oldest Homo sapiens skull outside of Africa; in Israel.	(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel
100,000 YBN [98000 BC]	597) The earliest human burial. Burial of archaic Homo sapiens in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh, Israel.	(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel, Israel
100,000 YBN [98000 BC]	6333) The theory that the universe is controlled by Gods. The explanation that many phenomena in the universe are controlled by objects with human and animal bodies that have supernatural powers is one of the earliest theories that tries to explain how the universe works. The theory that one or more Gods or Goddesses control the universe is perhaps the oldest theory that is still believed by some humans.	Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Israel
61,000 YBN [59000 BC]	614) Humans use a bow and arrows, and poison arrow heads.	Sibudu Cave, South Africa
53,300 YBN [51300 BC]	557) Homo Erectus goes extinct; the most recent Homo erectus fossil is in Southeast Asia. This shows that Homo erectus lived at the same time as Homo sapiens.	Ngandong, Indonesia
50,000 YBN [48000 BC]	6399) The start of the mass extinction of large mammals due in part to human impact. This includes direct impacts (like hunting) and indirect impacts (like competition and changes to habitat).
46,000 YBN [44000 BC]	577) The earliest evidence of water ships. Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach Australia using water ships. The earliest sapians fossils in Australia, "Mungo man".
43,000 YBN [41000 BC]	1187) The earliest known mine: "Lion Cave" in Swaziland, Africa is in use. Paleolithic humans mine for the iron-containing mineral hematite, which they grind to produce the red pigment ochre.	Swaziland, Africa
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	598) The earliest sapiens fossils in Europe (Romania).	Peştera cu Oase, Romania (and baby tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy, jaw: Kent's Cavern, UK)
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	604) The earliest oil lamp.	Southwest France
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	1262) The earliest known human-made painting. A cave painting made by using a blowing technique in El Castillo Cave in Spain is the oldest painting known from Europe. The cave art may be made by the first sapiens in Europe or possibly by Neanderthals.	(The Panel de las Manos,) El Castillo Cave, Spain|Southern France
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	5871) The earliest indisputable musical instrument, a flute made from the wing bone of a vulture.	Hohle Fels Cave, Germany
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	6483) Humans catch fish. Isotopic evidence shows that early sapiens ate fish.	Peçstera cu Oase, Romania
39,000 YBN [37000 BC]	599) Sapiens reach China. The earliest Homo sapiens fossil in China; from the Zhoukoudian Cave in China.	(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian, China (Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County, Guangxi Zhuang)
35,000 YBN [33000 BC]	3943) The oldest known sculpture of the human form, a statue made from mammoth-ivory.	Hohle Fels Cave, Germany
32,000 YBN [30000 BC]	602) Humans weave textiles from flax and use coloring dyes. The earliest evidence of weaving are 32,000 year old flax fibers. Some of the flax fibers are spun, dyed, and knotted. The flax plant is the source of flaxseed for linseed oil and fiber for linen products. Flax fibers are used for spinning into yarn by twisting the discontinuous fibers together to form a continuous thread because of the mechanical interlocking of the fibers.	Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia
31,700 YBN [29700 BC]	42) Humans raise dogs.	Goyet cave, Belgium
29,000 YBN [27000 BC]	6215) The earliest ceramic objects, the Venus figurines.	Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia
28,000 YBN [26000 BC]	451) The Neanderthals go extinct. The most recent Neanderthal fossil.	Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain
26,000 YBN [24000 BC]	6224) The earliest "fired" clay (clay dried and hardened by fire).	Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech Republic
25,000 YBN [23000 BC]	724) Woven baskets.	Pavlov, Czech Republic
23,000 YBN [21000 BC]	6231) The earliest human-made structure. A stone wall.	(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece
23,000 YBN [21000 BC]	6461) The earliest fishing hooks.	Jerimalai Cave (east end of East Timor, an island off northwestern Australia)
19,000 YBN [17000 BC]	6175) Cereal gathering.	Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia)
19,000 YBN [17000 BC]	6184) The earliest evidence of harvesting wild barley.	Ohalo II, south shore of the Sea of Galilee
18,000 YBN [16000 BC]	603) The earliest pottery; from Yuchanyan cave in China	(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan Province, China
17,000 YBN [15000 BC]	6225) The earliest rope.	Lascaux, France
17,000 YBN [15000 BC]	6516) There are 10 million humans on Earth, all hunter-gathering people.
14,000 YBN [12000 BC]	6227) The earliest known map.	Mezhirich, Ukraine
14,000 YBN [12000 BC]	6439) Lime cement is used as an adhesive on small stone tools (microliths) from Northern Sinai.	Geometric Kebaran site Lagama North VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai, Egypt
13,000 YBN [11000 BC]	578) Sapiens reach America. The oldest human bones in America.	Mexico City and Arlington Canyon on Santa Rosa Island, California, USA
12,000 YBN [10000 BC]	6522) Humans transform from hunting and gathering to agriculture, from a migratory to a sedentary life, building the first cities. There are five main areas of plant and animal domestication: southwest and central Asia, China and South-East Asia, Northern tropical Africa, MesoAmerica, and Northern South America.
11,700 YBN [9700 BC]	827) The end of the Pleistocene (PlISTeSEN), and start of the Holocene {HoLoSEN or HOLoSEN} epoch. This is the end of the last Ice Age.
11,700 YBN [9700 BC]	828) The start of the Neolithic or "New Stone Age" in the Fertile Crescent, a region of the Middle East arching from the Nile Valley to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The neolithic was originally defined by the occurrence of polished stone tools and pottery, but is now used most frequently in connection with the beginnings of farming.
11,500 YBN [9500 BC]	829) Humans shape metal objects. Copper is the first metal shaped by humans. This accomplishment is sometimes called the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age, referring to the initial use of pure copper (along with its predecessor toolmaking material, stone). The oldest shaped metal object is a pendant found in Shanidar Cave in northeast Iraq shaped from native copper.	(Shanidar Cave) North East Iraq|(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern Turkey)|Northern Iraq|Eastern Anatolia
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	606) The oldest city, Jericho. Jericho is located in the West bank, near the Jordan river.	Jericho, (modern West Bank) Palestine
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	608) The oldest saddle quern {KWRN} (a flat stone and rounded stone used to grind grain into flour).	Abu Hureyra, Syria
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	617) Goats are kept, fed, milked, and killed for food.	Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori, Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh (10,000).
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	1292) The earliest stone buildings and temple; in Turkey, Göbekli Tepe {GuBeKlE TePe} (Turkish for: "belly hill").	G�bekli Tepe, near Sanliurfa, Southeastern Turkey
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	6468) The earliest settlement in China; Nanzhuangtou.	Nanzhuangtou, Xushui County, Hebei Province, China
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	6509) Rye is grown in modern Syria. The domestication of plants is thought to have originated in the Fertile Crescent. The evidence for this is that the wild progenitors of modern cereal species intersect in this region, and that seeds of the wild species occur in early archaeological sites of the region, followed in age and in successive layers by the remains of domesticated forms.	Abu Hureyra, Syria
10,870 YBN [8870 BC]	6438) The earliest settlement in Mesopotamia, Zawi Chemi Shanidar.	Zawi Chemi, Shanidar, Northern Iraq
10,500 YBN [8500 BC]	610) Flax is grown. Flax is an oil and fiber crop.	Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria
10,500 YBN [8500 BC]	6315) Sheep are raised for wool, skins, meat and dung (which is used for fuel).	Northern Zagros to southeastern Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern Mediterranean
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	205) Pigs are raised and killed for food.	(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean and Island South East Asia|southeastern Anatolia
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	1259) Clay tokens of various geometrical shapes that represent products are used in Mesopotamia.	eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel, Sumer (modern Iraq)|Babylonia|Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	6316) Cows are raised for milk, for meat and eventually for plowing.	upper Euphrates Valley
9,800 YBN [7800 BC]	607) The earliest flint sickle. A sickle has a semicircular blade and is used for cutting grain or tall grass. The earliest flint sickle. A sickle has a semicircular blade and is used for cutting grain or tall grass.	Tell Aswad (modern Syria)|Palestine
9,500 YBN [7500 BC]	612) Emmer {eMR} wheat is grown in modern Syria.	Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria|southeastern Turkey and northern Syria (Nevali Cori, Turkey)
9,500 YBN [7500 BC]	613) Common millet is grown in China.	Cishan, North China
9,500 YBN [7500 BC]	6185) Barley is grown in modern Syria.	Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria
9,500 YBN [7500 BC]	6440) The earliest gypsum cement (or plaster).	Abu Hureyra, Syria
9,240 YBN [7240 BC]	1478) The earliest domesticated plants in America. Squash is grown in Peru.	Paiján, Peru
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	1288) Mehrgarh {mARGoR}, an Indus Valley city is founded.	Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	6484) The earliest fishing net.	Korpilahti, Karelian Isthmus, Finland (Antrea, Finland, now:Kamennogorsk, Russia)
8,800 YBN [6800 BC]	6511) Lentils are grown in Israel.	Yifta'el, North Israel
8,750 YBN [6750 BC]	1289) Jarmo, a settlement in Iraq.	ChamChamal, Iraq
8,700 YBN [6700 BC]	6515) Foxtail millet is grown in China.	Cishan, North China
8,600 YBN [6600 BC]	848) Symbols are carved on tortoise shells in China.	Jiahu, in central China's Henan Province
8,500 YBN [6500 BC]	609) Einkorn {INKORN} wheat is grown in Syria.	Abu Hureyra, Syria
8,500 YBN [6500 BC]	6469) The earliest farming settlements in China. Xinglongwa in Mongolia, has around 100 houses. Domesticated animals include pigs, chickens, and dogs.	Xinglongwa, Chifeng, Inner Mongolia
8,500 YBN [6500 BC]	6512) Peas are grown in Turkey.	�ay�n�, Turkey
8,500 YBN [6500 BC]	6513) Chickpeas are grown in the Near East.	Jericho (modern Palestine) and Ain Ghazal (modern Jordan)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	605) The oldest known boat, a dug-out boat.	Netherlands
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	616) The city "Catal Hüyük" {CaTL HvEK or KeToL HoYqK} in Turkey is founded.	Çatal Hüyük, (modern:) Turkey
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	6220) The earliest drums. Drums appear with wide geographic distribution in archaeological excavations from Neolithic times onward; one excavated in Moravia is dated to 6000 bce.	Moravia, Czeck Republic
7,750 YBN [5750 BC]	6525) Poppy plants are grown in Italy.	La Marmotta, Italy
7,700 YBN [5700 BC]	719) Rice is grown near the Yangtze river in China.	Kuahuqiao, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang Province|Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan provinces), China
7,570 YBN [5570 BC]	626) The city of Eridu {ARiDU} in Mesopotamia is founded.	(Eridu) Tell Abu Shahrain, (22 km south of) Nasiriya, Iraq
7,100 YBN [5100 BC]	720) Corn is grown in Mexico.	San Andr�s, Mexico|(Oaxaca, Mexico)
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	627) The first metal to be smelted and casted (copper). Smelting is separating a metal from its ore by using heat and a reducing material such as coke, or an oxidizing material such as air. Other impurities are removed by adding flux, which impurities combine with to form slag which can be removed because it floats on the surface of the liquid metal. Casting involves pouring liquid metal into a shaped mold of baked clay, stone, metal, or sand. The earliest molds are one-piece, of clay or stone, used for the manufacture of simple tools, flat weapons such as tanged arrowheads (arrowheads with a sharp projection or tang which secures the arrowhead to the shaft), bar-ingots, and jewellery. These moulds are open at the top so that the product has one flat surface. Core-pieces can be inserted to form sockets for handles.	Belovode, Eastern Serbia
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	727) The earliest reed boats.	Kuwait
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	1296) The city of Uruk {RuK} in Mesopotamia is founded. Uruk will last until the 400s CE.	Uruk, southern Babylonia
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	6466) The earliest pottery in America.	(near) Santar�m (in the lower Amazon), Brazil
6,900 YBN [4900 BC]	648) The sail boat.	Mesopotamia
6,800 YBN [4800 BC]	6527) The first fruit trees, olives are grown in Israel and Jordan.	(Chalcolithic) Tuleilat Ghassul (north of the Dead Sea)
6,500 YBN [4500 BC]	6437) The earliest settlement in Europe, Provadia-Solnitsata {PrOVoDEYo SOLnETSoTo?}, in Bulgaria is founded.	(near) Provadia, Bulgaria
6,200 YBN [4200 BC]	1295) An early city map in Catal Huyuk.	Catal Huyuk
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	665) Wine making.	(Areni-1 cave complex in) southeastern Armenia|Egypt
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	1263) Symbols on clay pottery in Vinča {ViNCA}, Serbia.	Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia)
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	6232) The earliest sun-dried mud bricks and mud-brick house; in Mesopotamia. Mud brick, dried by the Sun, is one of the first building materials. In the early Ubaid period settlement a thick layer of reed matting is the earliest sign of occupation. Above that walls are built, first of pisé (which is clay, earth, or gravel beaten down until it is solid) and then mud-brick.	Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	6530) Date palm trees are grown in Mesopotamia.	Eridu, Lower mesopotamia
5,800 YBN [3800 BC]	6235) An early map of Northern Mesopotamia.	Harran, Mesopotamia
5,800 YBN [3800 BC]	6540) The earliest nut crops, almond trees are grown in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin.	Eastern part of the Mediterranean Basin
5,650 YBN [3650 BC]	6529) Figs are grown in Egypt.	Maadi and Pre-dynastic Tell el-Fara'in (Buto), the Nile Delta, Egypt
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	233) The earliest writing (on clay objects in Mesopotamia). The first numbers. The first stamp (or seal). The first writing begins as symbols for numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay containers that hold clay tokens). These symbols represent the quantity and kind of tokens inside the bulla. Markings on clay tokens which represent products like sheep, oil, or metal, may lead to the first symbols of the alphabet. Hollow bullae and clay tokens are eventually replaced by solid clay tablets with the same impressions.	Mesopotamia (Babylonia)|Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	294) The sundial, the earliest timekeeping device. The first device for indicating the time of day is probably the gnomon, which is a vertical object. The length of the gnomon's shadow indicates the time of day.	China and Chaldea
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	621) The earliest plow. Plows are used to break up soil. Pictographs from Mesopotamia show a beam-ard, a simple machine that scratches a trench without turning the soil.	Mesopotamia
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	622) The earliest irrigation (an artificial supply of water to land for food crops).	Middle east (eastern part of Mediterranean)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	625) Donkeys are raised and used for transport.
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	634) The Egyptian calendar (12 months of 30 days, plus 5 extra days).
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	646) The earliest known wheel, a pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.	Mesopotamia (and a similar pottery wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	693) The Indus valley city Harappa.	Harappa, Sāhiwāl, Punjob, Pakistan
5,490 YBN [3490 BC]	702) Cotton is grown in Peru.	Northwestern Peru|Indus valley
5,350 YBN [3350 BC]	1261) Writing on clay tablets. Symbols that represent a product (such as cows, sheep, and cereals), drawn with a stylus on clay tablets, are the earliest record of what will become the modern alphabet. Many of the symbols look like the marked clay tokens that represent actual products, and that are replaced by the drawn symbols on clay tablets. This is the first training and industry of scribes, which will ultimately evolve into the modern school system. Writing will be continuously taught eventually in all major civilizations (even through the Dark Ages) until now. These tablets are all economic records, used to keep a record of objects owned or traded, and contain no stories. This writing is evidence that most of the 30 or so basic sounds of humans language were already in use by the origin of writing.	Uruk
5,310 YBN [3310 BC]	704) The earliest wheeled vehicles and ox pulled wheeled vehicles; in Poland.	(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture) Bronocice, Krakow, Poland
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	1266) The earliest writing in Egypt.	(Tomb U-j supposedly of King Scorpian, Royal Cemetery of:) Abydos (modern:) Umm el-Qa'ab
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	1285) Indus valley symbols.	Harrapa, Indus Valley
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	6493) The earliest evidence of cheese-making.	Linear Pottery settlements along the lower Vistula river (including Brześć Kujawski 3 and 4, Miechowice 4, Smólsk 4, Wolica Nowa 1, Stare Nakonowo 2, and Ludwinowo 6 and 7)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	641) The earliest record of a belief in Gods and Goddesses.	Uruk
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	6562) The Narmer Palette; early Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	569) The earliest stringed musical instrument (the lyre and the harp); in Mesopotamia. The lyre has a yoke-shaped frame consisting of two arms and a crossbar, with strings stretched over the frontal soundboard. The lyre is first depicted in Sumerian art works around 3000 BC. Harps have a plane of strings vertical, not parallel to the soundboard. There are two kinds of harps: an arched harp in which the body is elongated at one end into a curved neck, together forming an arch, and an angular harp, in which the body and neck form an angle. Arched harps are thought to originate from the musical bow. The only harps used in Sumer are arched harps. Arched harps are depicted on a stone slab from Khafaje in Sumer and a vase from Bismya in South Babylonia, both which date to around 3000 BC.	Sumer (modern Iraq)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	596) Written symbols are combined to form words; there is a transition from word-writing to sound-writing in Sumarian. Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for "arrow" that is now also defined as the Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which starts with the same sound. The vast majority of Sumerian language is made of one-syllable words. This suggests that all earlier spoken languages contained only single-syllable words.	Jemdet Nasr
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	628) Bronze (copper and tin) are smelted and casted; in modern Turkey. The start of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age has different start dates and different durations in different parts of the Earth. Bronze is made by smelting together two separate ores, one bearing copper, and the other tin. Bronze tools will replace copper tools. The oldest examples of true bronze (combination of copper and tin) known are figurines of men and women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey.	Tell Judaidah, Turkey|Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	650) Cuneiform writing. Pictures are not drawn with pointed reed, but drawn with a cut reed-stem pressed into the wet clay to make wedges.	Uruk
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	653) The earliest stone buildings; in Egypt.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	664) Soft soldering of metals. In soft soldering the solder melts at a temperature below 350ºC. Soldering is a process that uses metal alloys with low melting points to join metallic surfaces without melting the surfaces.	Tell al-'Ubaid|Mesopotamia
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	668) Silk making; in China.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	672) The earliest dam. This dam is built in Egypt to provide a water reservoir.	Wadi Gerrawi, Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	673) The earliest wooden adze {aDZ} with a copper blade. An adze is a hand tool for shaping wood.	Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	675) The earliest silver objects.	Ur
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	676) Metal casting where wax is melted in a clay mold (also called cire-perdu {SErA PARDU} or "lost-wax").
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	1268) The Proto-Elamite language (which is still undeciphered), is pressed into tablets to represent the language of Elam in modern southwest Iran.	modern southwest Iran
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	1276) The first recorded political assembly.	Sumer, Uruk, Kish
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6222) The inclined plane (or ramp). The inclined plane is based on the concept that moving an object from a lower to higher elevation is easier when pushed up a flatter slope.	Egypt?
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6226) The abacus. The abacus is a bead and wire analog counting and calculating computer which first appears in Mesopotamia as a sand-covered board in which marks are made by finger or stick.	Mesopotamia
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6441) The earliest bow drill. A bow can be used for drilling: the bow string is looped around the pointed shaft, which is a long, narrow stick or stone. By moving the bow back and forth in a sawing motion, the shaft is made to spin. A bow drill can drill holes, and can also be used to start a fire from friction.	Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6453) The start of the Indus valley settlement Mohenjo-daro.	Indus River, Sindh province, southern Pakistan
4,980 YBN [2980 BC]	654) The earliest pyramid in Egypt, the step pyramid of Djoser, designed by Imhotep, the earliest known scientist of history.	Sakkara, Egypt
4,925 YBN [2925 BC]	643) Hieratic script, a cursive script of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs, replaces traditional hieroglyphs.
4,900 YBN [2900 BC]	6528) Grapes are grown in Jordan and Turkey.	Tell es-Sa'idiyeh Jordan, and Kurban Hoyuk, south-eastern Turkey
4,900 YBN [2900 BC]	6531) Pomegranates are grown in Palestine and Jordan.	Jericho and Tell es-Sa'idiyeh (ancient Zaretan), Jordan
4,800 YBN [2800 BC]	6565) Musical reed instruments.	Greece
4,750 YBN [2750 BC]	320) The earliest metal saw.	Mesopotamia
4,700 YBN [2700 BC]	1052) The earliest arch.	Nippur, Mesopotamia
4,600 YBN [2600 BC]	1269) The earliest known inscription to a king; in Sumer.	Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of modern Bagdad
4,530 YBN [2530 BC]	6544) The first carvel-built boats in Egypt (planks are edge to edge).	Egypt
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	635) Iron is smelted and casted. The start of the Iron Age in Turkey.	Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia (modern Turkey)|Palestine|Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan|Central Europe and north Assyria
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	637) Scribes in Sumer change from writing in columns right to left to writing in rows left to right (except on stone monuments until around 1500 BC). Pictures are also turned 90 degrees counter-clockwise.	Sumer
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	677) Bronze sickles.
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	691) Skis are used in Skandinavia.
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	6230) The earliest dice and boardgame.	Ur, Mesopotamia
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	6462) The Babylonians describe constellations.	(Elamite capital) Susa, Iran
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	6523) Hemp is grown in China.	China
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	6560) Hard soldering of metals. Hard soldering (which includes brazing) uses a solder that melts above 350ºC. Gold based hard solders are used in Mesopotamia.	Mesopotamia|Ur
4,450 YBN [2450 BC]	708) Animal skin (leather) is used for writing (the earliest parchment).	Egypt
4,400 YBN [2400 BC]	1277) The earliest recorded written history. Two clay cylinders describe the history of the border and struggle for power between Lagash and Umma.	Lagash
4,345 YBN [2345 BC]	800) Writing on papyrus. Papyrus sheets are made from the fibrous layers within the stem of the papyrus plant.	Egypt
4,300 YBN [2300 BC]	629) The Akkadian language, the earliest known semitic language. The earliest verb tense, and noun gender. The first dictionary. The Akkadian language has no written form and so Akkadian speaking people adopt the Sumerian script. Bilingual lexical lists with both Akkadian and Sumerian are the first dictionaries.	Agade, Mesopotamia
4,300 YBN [2300 BC]	667) The earliest evidence of glass making, glass beads. The first human-made glass beads and pendants are made in the area of modern Iraq and northern Syria (Mesopotamia).	Mesopotamia
4,300 YBN [2300 BC]	1271) The earliest written stories. These consist of epics and myths, hymns and laments, proverbs and wisdom. These writings record a belief in Gods, Goddesses, a Heaven, and an Under World. There are clear similarities between the Sumerian and the later Greek stories, for example stories about: the creation of the universe, the birth of the gods, the hero, the slaying of the dragon, good and bad deeds of the gods, fighting between gods, stories of a flood, plagues as divine punishment, and the dreary Under World with its river and ferryman. The Sumerian Flood myth tells about the creation of humans, animals and the first cities, how the Gods send a flood to destroy humanity, how the God Enki warns the hero, Ziusudra {ZEUSUDru} to build a large boat, which Ziusudra then builds, and survives the flood. There are many similarities between the flood story of Ziusudra, and the later flood stories with a different hero, for example, the Babylonian "Atrahasis", and Babylonian "Utnapishtim" of the Gigamesh epic, and "Noah" of the Old Testament. The Sumerians believe in a variety of Gods and Goddesses. People of other regions have similar Gods and Goddesses, but with different names, for example, the Sumerian Goddess of love and war, Inanna is analogous to the Babylonian Ishtar, the Greek Aphrodite, and the Roman Venus. Similarly the Sumerian sky-god An {oN}, is analogous to the Babylonian "Anu" {o-nU}, the Greek "Zeus", and Roman "Jupiter".	Lagash|Nippur
4,250 YBN [2250 BC]	6524) Cotton is grown in the Indus Valley.	Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan and Harappan sites in India
4,250 YBN [2250 BC]	6526) Sesame is grown in the Indus Valley.	Harapa in the Indus Valley
4,200 YBN [2200 BC]	6446) Egyptian writing becomes completely phonetic. The first alphabet. Egyptian scribes reduce Egyptian writing to only 26 signs, each representing only one consonant. This is the first alphabet, although there are no vowels and these consonantal signs are almost always used together with symbols (such as logograms, or word signs, including determinatives, word signs attached to the end of phonograms, or sound signs, to identify the precise meaning of the word). The Egyptian alphabet is the ancestor of all modern alphabets and may ultimately replace the writing systems of all other human languages. Writing originates in Sumer, but the modern alphabet descends from the Egyptian alphabet.	Egypt
4,200 YBN [2200 BC]	6539) Citrus trees are grown in China.	China
4,130 YBN [2130 BC]	6234) The earliest evidence of a horn used as a musical instrument.	Lagash, Mesopotamia
4,100 YBN [2100 BC]	1279) The earliest Health science (or medical) text, found in Nippur. There are more than 10 remedies listed on this clay tablet.	Nippur
4,100 YBN [2100 BC]	6376) The first place value number system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number system. Fractional values such as 1/60 and 1/3600 are also in use. This sexagesimal, base 60, number system is still in use to measure time (60 seconds, 60 minutes), and angles (for example in astronomical and geographic coordinates).	Babylonia
4,050 YBN [2050 BC]	1278) The earliest recorded laws. One law involves a trial by water, another describes the return of a slave to their master.	Ur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	703) Kaolin, soft white clay needed to make porcelain, is used in China.	China
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	705) Stonehenge is built.
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	706) Humans ride horses. Horses are raised for milk and for riding in Kazakhstan.	Kazakhstan
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	710) The earliest Shaduf, an irrigation tool.
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	711) The earliest spoked wheel. Spokes make the wheel lighter in weight.
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	733) The earliest lock and key; near Nineveh on the Tigris River.	Nineveh, Assyria on the Tigris River
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	830) Shaped iron artifacts are made from meteorites. Iron beads are worn in Egypt.	Egpyt (and near East)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	1283) The earliest library catalog, a clay tablet from the tablet house in Nippur; on the Euphrates River.	Nippur an ancient city of Babylonia on the Euphrates River southeast of Babylon
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6236) Metal is traded as money; in Babylonia.	Babylonia
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6514) Faba Beans are grown in the Mediterranean Basin and central Europe.	Jericho (modern Palestine), Mediterranean basic and central Europe
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6532) Apple trees are grown. Fruit trees such as apple, pear, plum, and sweet cherry depend on grafting. A grafted branch gives fruit true to type, but seedlings tend to revert to the wild state or produce fruit of poor quality.	Central Europe or (genetic evidence) Tian Shan Mountains, Central Asia
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6538) Peach trees are grown in China.	China
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6542) The vegetables leek, garlic and onion are grown around the fertile crescent.	Mesopotamia
3,842 YBN [1842 BC]	712) The proto-Sinaitic {SInEiTiK} alphabet evolves from the Egyptian (hieroglyphic) alphabet.	(Caanan modern:) Palestine|(turquoise mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai Peninsula
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	1181) The earliest brass (a copper and zinc alloy); in Iran.	Tepe Yahya (modern Iran)|Asia Minor
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	1280) The earliest agricultural science text. The text include instructions for how far apart to space barley seeds, and when to water and harvest the plants.	Nippur
3,650 YBN [1650 BC]	716) The earliest mathematical text, the he "Rhind Mathematical Papyrus".	Egypt
3,600 YBN [1600 BC]	6460) The "Pythagorean Theorem" is known in Babylonia: that the sum of the squares of the two legs of a right triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse. This also shows a knowledge of the square root of the number 2 which is an irrational number (cannot be represented as the ratio of two whole numbers).	Babylonia
3,531 YBN [1531 BC]	639) The first planet, Venus, is recognized in Babylon. The Venus Tablet records astronomical observations when Venus is on the horizon on a new Moon for 21 years.	Babylon
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	624) The earliest oven-baked mud brick (also called "burned brick"). A burned brick is a mud brick that been baked in an oven (kiln) which improves its resistance to moisture.	Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	723) The earliest pulley. A pulley is a wheel that has a grooved rim for carrying a rope. One or more pulleys can be used to gain mechanical advantage, especially for lifting weights.	Nimroud, Assyria
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	1516) The "Vedas", four ancient Indian collections of poems or hymns, originate as an oral tradition before being written down 1200 years later around 300 bce.	India
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6228) The water clock (or Clepsydra {KlePSi-Dru}).	Egypt
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6456) The earliest American city, an Olmec city in Veracruz, Mexico.	(El Manati shrine, near modern) San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6541) Walnut trees are grown in south-west Asia.	south-west Asia
3,450 YBN [1450 BC]	6449) The first letters that represent vowel sounds. The alphabet of Ugarit {UGerET} in Syria includes three letters for the sounds /o/, /E/, and /U/.	Ugarit (modern Ra's Shamra on Syria's north coast)
3,400 YBN [1400 BC]	6454) The earliest Chinese writing. Chinese is the oldest of all East Asian writing, emerging in nearly fully developed form around 1400 BC. Some scholars think that Chinese writing developed natively, but others think Chinese writing borrowed from Mesopotamian writing.	near Anyang, north-central China
3,350 YBN [1350 BC]	6559) The earliest evidence of human kissing.
3,350 YBN [1350 BC]	6561) Welding of iron using heat and hammering; in Egypt. "Hot pressure welding" (also known as "forge welding"), is done by hammering with the addition of heat.	Egypt
3,348 YBN [1348 BC]	2727) Monotheism, the theory that only one God exists. Amenhotep IV (also Akhenaton), the Pharaoh of Egypt, introduces the concept of monotheism. All monotheistic religions (including Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) may originate from the influence of Amenhotep's monotheistic religion based on the Sun God "Aton".	Amarna, Egypt
3,300 YBN [1300 BC]	736) Two piece mold metal casting.	Mesopotamia
3,300 YBN [1300 BC]	5862) The earliest written musical notation and musical composition; on clay tablets from Ur in Babylonia.	Ur, Babylonia|Mesopotamia
3,200 YBN [1200 BC]	3134) Lac (also called shellac) is used as plastic in India. Lac is a natural thermoplastic (liquid when heated and solid at room temperature) made from resin secreted by an insect.	India|(from India to Spain and the South of France)
3,150 YBN [1150 BC]	6447) The Phoenician alphabet. Phoenician people convert the pictorial alphabet of their Canaanite ancestors into a streamlined non-pictorial alphabet of 22 consonant letters, from which the Greek and Latin alphabets descend.	(coastal centers) Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Beurut, and Ashkelon
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	746) Complex pulleys. The lifting power of a pulley is multiplied by the number of ropes pulling the load.
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	1048) The tea plant is grown and made into the classic tea drink in China.
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	6237) The earliest lens; a plano-convex lens (one side is plane and the other convex) made from rock-crystal found in Nimrud; a magnifying and burning glass.	Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	6448) The Aramaic alphabet, the ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, and probably the hundreds of alphabets of the Indian subcontinent. Aramaic uses consonant letters to mark vowel sounds which makes the correct pronunciation of words clearer.
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	6450) The earliest Hebrew writing.	Khirbet Qeiyafa near the Elah valley, Israel
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	6510) Oat is grown; in the Czech Republic.	Czech Republic
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	6537) Apricot trees are grown in China.	China
2,922 YBN [922 BC]	753) The monotheistic religion: Judaism is founded. The story of Moses is created around this time.	Israel
2,900 YBN [900 BC]	6605) The first steel; in Egypt. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content up to 2 percent.	Egypt
2,850 YBN [850 BC]	751) The Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet is developed from the Phoenician alphabet. Unlike the Phoenicians, the Greeks give each vowel its own sign, like a consonant and so speech is more accurately represented.	Greece
2,800 YBN [800 BC]	1062) A padded cloth is used as a saddle in Assyria.	Assyria
2,800 YBN [800 BC]	6452) The Indian alphabets of India and South-East Asia. The Indian alphabets all descend from a Semitic alphabet, probably Aramaic. There are hundreds of past and present alphabets of the Indian subcontinent and their numerous Asian and Pacific descendent scripts. Writing does not occur on the Indian subcontinent until around the eighth century BC. By this time Indus Valley writing had been extinct for a thousand years, having left no descendants.	India
2,785 YBN [785 BC]	771) Eclipses are predicted by Babylonian astronomers.
2,753 YBN [753 BC]	6457) Rome is founded.	Rome, Italy
2,731 YBN [731 BC]	6299) Lunar eclipses are recorded in Babylon.	Babylon
2,690 YBN [690 BC]	1066) The earliest aqueduct, a pipe or channel to move water from one place to another, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan near Nineveh.	Jerwan, Nineveh
2,690 YBN [690 BC]	6378) The earliest concrete. Sennacherib's Aqueduct contains magnesium-oxide lime cement with limestone and sand concrete.	Jerwan, Nineveh
2,660 YBN [660 BC]	644) The Demotic script replaces hieratic in Egypt.
2,651 YBN [651 BC]	6337) All planets visible to the naked eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) are clearly distinguished from stars in Babylonia. The position of these five planets compared to the stars is found in a series of baked clay tablet astronomical "diaries".	Babylonia
2,651 YBN [651 BC]	6463) Babylonian astronomers measure planetary positions in cubits and fingers (similar to degrees and minutes) of arc relative to certain stars.	Babylonia
2,650 YBN [650 BC]	6458) The Etruscan {iTruSKeN} alphabet. The Latin alphabet is descended from the Etruscan alphabet. Letter names are changed to /A/, /BA/, /KA/, etc. The sound /s/ may result as an abbreviation of the common letter combination of S and H.
2,622 YBN [622 BC]	826) The Old Testament (The Torah, The Hebrew Bible, The Ten Commandments, and The Story of Genesis).	Judah|(Israel)
2,600 YBN [600 BC]	630) The earliest metal coin money is traded in Lydia, Anatolia.	Lydia, Anatolia
2,600 YBN [600 BC]	762) The Universe is explained without using the theory of Gods by Thales of Miletus (in Greek: Θαλης). Thales claims the universe originated as water, that moon light is reflected sun light, and measures a pyramid by comparing the pyramid shadow with the shadow from a stick.	Miletus, Greece
2,600 YBN [600 BC]	2619) The concept of a Devil is created and is first recorded in the book of Job, written around this time.
2,600 YBN [600 BC]	6455) The earliest Native American writing. Mesoamerican humans either borrow writing from the Chinese or independently invent writing themselves.	San Jose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico
2,600 YBN [600 BC]	6470) The /w/ sound, represented with the letter theta (Θ), is created by Greek people from the combination of the letters T and H (as in the word "then"). Theta will also later have the /t/ sound (as in "theater").	(Dorian Islands) Thera (modern Santorini), Greece
2,588 YBN [588 BC]	6434) The monotheistic religion: Zoroasterism is founded.	(Chorasmia south of the Aral Sea, modern Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan) Central Asia and/or (born in Rhages, now Rayy, a suburb of Tehrān, a town in Media)Tehrān, Iran
2,580 YBN [580 BC]	764) The Earth-centered Universe theory, and the theory that humans evolved from fish by Anaximander, friend and student of Thales. The Earth-centered theory will dominate until the 1500s.	Miletus
2,550 YBN [550 BC]	1036) The Latin alphabet. The Romans borrow the writing system and alphabet of the Etruscans who live in the North.	Rome
2,540 YBN [540 BC]	783) Planets are clearly distinguished from stars in Greece.	Miletus
2,540 YBN [540 BC]	784) Xenophanes finds seashells on mountain tops and reasons that the Earth changes over time, so that mountains must have been in the sea and then rose.	Elea, Southern Italy
2,533 YBN [533 BC]	6436) The start of Buddhism.	(modern) southern Nepal, India
2,530 YBN [530 BC]	797) A tunnel is cut 800 meters (a 1/2 mile) through a hill from two sides that meet at the center.	Samos, Greece
2,529 YBN [529 BC]	772) The Earth is described as a sphere by Pythagoras. Pythagoras teaches that the Sun, Moon, and planets do not follow the motion of the stars, but have paths of their own, adding separate spheres to Anaximander's single heavenly crystal sphere. Pythagoras is credited with proving the so-called "Pythagorean Theorem", and shows mathematically how pitch is related to string length in stringed musical instruments, for example, that twice the length equals 1 octave lower.	Croton, Italy
2,521 YBN [521 BC]	6435) The Chinese philosopher Confucius lives around this time.	(hometown, place of birth and death) state of Lu, China
2,510 YBN [510 BC]	786) Heraclitus views fire as the ultimate substance.	Miletus, Greece
2,510 YBN [510 BC]	787) Parmenides follows in the tradition of the Ionian exiled Pythagorus and Xenophanes and founds a school in Elea, the "Eliatic School" based on his philosophy of reason over senses.
2,500 YBN [500 BC]	824) The earliest iron reinforced building.
2,500 YBN [500 BC]	825) The crossbow is invented in China. A crossbow is a normal bow which is mounted on a block of wood, which can be fired with a single hand.	China
2,500 YBN [500 BC]	6518) There are 100 million humans on Earth.
2,490 YBN [490 BC]	789) Carthaginian navigator Hanno sails ships below the equator and reports that in the far south, the Sun at noon is in the northern part of the sky, which is true.	Carthage (modern: Tunis)
2,475 YBN [475 BC]	6464) Babylonian astronomers divide the sky into the 12 parts which correspond to constellations (also called the zodiac).	Babylonia
2,470 YBN [470 BC]	836) The Sun is described as a mass of red-hot metal, that people live on the Moon, and that the Universe is made of tiny bodies by Anaxagoras.	Athens
2,470 YBN [470 BC]	840) That the brain controls the body is understood, and the first human dissection by Greek physician Alcmaeon (oLKmEoN). Alcmaeon identifies the optic nerve, the tube connecting the ear and mouth (the Eustachian tubes), and distinguishes arteries from veins.	(academy at Croton, now:) Crotone, southern Italy
2,467 YBN [467 BC]	1894) The earliest particle (or wireless) communication. The optical telegraph (or semaphore) News of the fall of Troy reaches the city of Argos 600 km (370 miles) away in only a few hours by the use of fire signals.	Greece (presumably)
2,460 YBN [460 BC]	841) The theory that all matter is made of atoms by Leucippus. Leucippus theorizes that the universe is made of two different elements, which he calls "solid" and "empty", and that matter is composed entirely of an infinity of small indivisible particles called atoms, which are constantly in motion, and through their collisions and regroupings form various compounds.
2,460 YBN [460 BC]	842) The theory that the universe is made of only four elements: water, air, fire and earth by Empedocles. Empedocles unites the 4 elements (water, air, fire, earth) described by earlier people into a theory of the universe. Empedicles recognizes the material nature of air because water will not enter a clepsydra (also called a "water thief", a hollow brass sphere with a long tube) when the hole is covered with his thumb because of the air inside. Empedocles understands that the heart is the center of the blood vessel system, but wrongly views the heart as the center of decision making. This theory is passed on to Aristotle from whom it has descended to modern times. Humans still say a person is "lion-hearted" to mean brave, and "broken-hearted" to mean disappointed, etc.
2,451 YBN [451 BC]	906) Books of Protagoras are burned for doubting the existence of Gods.
2,450 YBN [450 BC]	838) The first recorded trial of a person for atheism; Anaxagoras. Pericles defends Anaxagoras in court, and Anaxagoras is freed (unlike Socrates a generation later).	Athens, Greece
2,450 YBN [450 BC]	843) Philolaus theorizes that the Earth is not the center of the universe, but instead that the Earth, Moon, planets, and Sun circle a great fire in separate spheres, and that the Sun is only a reflection of this fire. This is the first record of the theory that the Earth moves through space.	Croton, Italy
2,432 YBN [432 BC]	849) Meton creates a calendar with 12 years of 12 months and 7 years of 13 months (the Metonic calendar). Meton finds that 235 lunar months make around 19 years, so 12 years of 12 months and 7 years of 13 months will allow the lunar calendar to match the seasons. This calendar lasts until the Julian Calendar of 46 BCE	Athens, Greece (presumably)
2,430 YBN [430 BC]	845) The Universe is explained as being filled with many other worlds, and the Milky Way as a large group of stars by Democritus of Abdera. Demokritos explains the motions of atoms as based on natural laws, not on the wants of gods or demons.	Abdera, Thrace
2,430 YBN [430 BC]	847) A school of health science is founded by Hippocrates of Cos (in Greek: Ἱπποκράτης) who views disease as a physical phenomenon, not the product of gods or demons.	Cos
2,425 YBN [425 BC]	920) The Greek historian Herodotus.	Athens or central Greece
2,424 YBN [424 BC]	6533) Grafting of plants in Greece. A Hippocratic treatise {TrE-TiS} describes plant grafting.	Greece|(presumably for Theophrastus) (The Lyceum) Athens, Greece
2,403 YBN [403 BC]	818) The creation of the F sound. Greek people add a new letter, phi (Φ) as an abbreviation to represent the sound of the commonly paired letters P and H (as in "top hat").	Ionia, Greece
2,399 YBN [399 BC]	846) Socrates is sentenced to death, in part for disrespecting the Gods.	Athens, Greece
2,387 YBN [387 BC]	851) The school "the Academy" is founded by Plato in Athens. The word "academy" will eventually be applied to all schools.	Athens, Greece
2,378 YBN [378 BC]	854) The sky is divided into degrees of latitude and longitude (a system that is eventually applied to the Earth), and stars are mapped, by Eudoxus of Cnidus {nI-DuS} (in Greek: Εύδοξος). Eudoxus develops a universe model of 27 interconnected, Earth-centered spheres; one for the fixed stars, four for each planet, and three each for the Sun and Moon.
2,358 YBN [358 BC]	856) The theory that the Earth rotates around its own axis, and that some planets rotate around the Sun by Heracleides.	(Academy) Athens, Greece (presumably)
2,350 YBN [350 BC]	6534) Pear trees are grown in Greece.	Greece
2,335 YBN [335 BC]	859) The school called the Lyceum {LI SEuM or lU-KEoN} is opened in Athens by Aristotle. Aristotle adds a fifth element to the four elements of Empedocles, "aether" which the "heavens" are made of, and rejects the theory of atoms; two inaccurate views that will last for more than 2000 years. Aristotle also puts forward the first theory of gravity, claiming that heavy objects go down and incorrectly that light objects go up. Aristotle classifies 500 species, and dissects nearly 50, correctly classifying dolphins with species of the field, not with fish.	Athens, Greece
2,330 YBN [06/28/330 BC]	864) A 76 year cycle of 940 months created by Callipus is more accurate than the Metonic cycle.	(probably) Cyzicus (an ancient city in NW Asia Minor, in Mysia, on a peninsula in the Sea of Marmara)
2,325 YBN [325 BC]	887) The theory that the Moon influences the tides by Pytheas. Not until 2000 years later will Newton explain the attraction of the moon.	Massalia (now: Marseille France)
2,323 YBN [323 BC]	862) Theophrastus describes over 500 species of plants, and is charged with atheism but acquitted.	Athens
2,311 YBN [311 BC]	885) A school in Athens is founded by Epicurus who argues against the existence of any Gods, and bases his philosophy on the principle that pleasure is good and pain is bad. This is the first school to admit females and slaves.
2,305 YBN [305 BC]	884) Nerves are distinguished from blood vessels, and divided into sensory (those which receive sense impressions) and motor (those which stimulate motion) by Herophilus. Herophilus is also the first to describe the liver, ovaries, Fallopian tubes, to name the retina, and to measure the pulse.	Alexandria, Egypt
2,300 YBN [300 BC]	871) That falling bodies accelerate, that is, move more quickly with each successive unit of time is recognized by Straton of Lampsacus.	(Lyceum) Athens, Greece (presumably)
2,300 YBN [300 BC]	1166) A lathe is used in Egypt. A lathe is a machine in which material is removed from a workpiece that is rotated against a cutting tool.	Egypt
2,300 YBN [300 BC]	6482) The earliest known use of a chain-drive; used in an automatic repeating crossbow.	Rhodes, Greece
2,297 YBN [297 BC]	902) The Museum and Library of Alexandria is founded.
2,295 YBN [295 BC]	878) Euclid's "Elements" compiles all known mathematics. Euclid proves that the number of prime numbers is infinite, that the square root of the number 2 is irrational, and describes light rays as straight lines.	(Mouseion) Alexandria, Egypt
2,285 YBN [285 BC]	1028) Compressed air is used for a catapult and for the earliest musical keyboard instrument, an organ, by Ctesibius in Alexandria. This is the earliest known keyboard instrument and musical organ, the "hydraulus".	Alexandria, Egpyt
2,281 YBN [281 BC]	935) Ptolemy II creates a zoo and observatory in Alexandria.
2,275 YBN [275 BC]	873) The Septuagint, the earliest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew.	Alexandria, Egypt
2,274 YBN [274 BC]	886) The cerebrum and cerebellum of the brain are identified by Erasistratus.	Alexandria, Egpyt
2,265 YBN [265 BC]	6591) A paddle-wheel turned by oxen propels a Roman water ship.	Sicily
2,260 YBN [260 BC]	663) The earliest lever by Archimedes. A lever is a rigid bar pivoted on a support point (fulcrum) which can be used to exert a force on a load. Levers are used to either multiply the force or to apply it in a different place. There are only three different types of lever, class 1, the most familiar kind in which the fulcrum is between the effort and load, class 2, where the fulcrum is at one end and the effort at the other, and class 3 where the effort is exerted in the center which are designed not for power but for precise action at a distance.	Syracuse, Sicily
2,260 YBN [260 BC]	822) The earliest screw; a device for raising water. The concept of density (mass divided by volume) is understood. A spiral screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The spiral is called a "thread", and the distance between adjacent edges is called the "pitch" of the screw. The pitch is equal to the distance that the screw advances in one turn in a solid medium.	Syracuse, Sicily
2,260 YBN [260 BC]	882) The rotation of the Earth around its own axis once a day and around the Sun once a year is understood by Aristarchus of Samos. Aristarchus also determines that the Sun is farther away from Earth than the Moon is by measuring the angle between the Moon and Sun when the moon appears half lit.	(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria, Egpyt
2,250 YBN [250 BC]	890) The earliest known escapement, a device that controls the rotation of a toothed gear to provide periodic impulses, is described by Philon of Byzantium.
2,250 YBN [250 BC]	894) The ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola are described by Apollonios of Perga (Απολλώνιος ο Περγαίος ), in Alexandria.	Alexandria, Egypt
2,246 YBN [246 BC]	898) The size of Earth is correctly calculated by Eratosthenes by using the angle of the shadow the Sun forms in Alexandria on the longest day of the year and the distance between the cities of Alexandria and Syene.	Alexandria, Egypt
2,240 YBN [240 BC]	923) The Sarapeum (SARuPEuM} Library in Alexandria is built.	Alexandria, Egypt
2,240 YBN [240 BC]	1325) The earliest observation of a comet. Chinese astronomers observe Halley's comet.	China
2,231 YBN [231 BC]	833) The earliest evidence of gears: the spur and worm gears by Archimedes. A gear is a toothed machine part, such as a wheel or cylinder, that meshes with another toothed part to transmit motion or to change speed or direction. Archimedes uses a worm drive in a crane to launch large ships into water, which he calls the "barulkon".	Syracuse, Sicily
2,230 YBN [230 BC]	1034) The letter "G" is added to the Latin alphabet in Rome, as the seventh letter replacing the letter Z.
2,208 YBN [208 BC]	1051) The beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China.
2,196 YBN [196 BC]	1267) The "Rosetta Stone" is inscribed in three scripts, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Egyptian demotic, and Greek.	Egypt
2,186 YBN [186 BC]	1117) The earliest Chinese mathematic text.	Zhangjiashan, Hubei Provience, China
2,160 YBN [160 BC]	1029) The distance to the Moon is measured by Hipparchus using parallax; by measuring how much an object appears to move compared to a more distant object when the observer changes positions. Hipparchos determines the distance to the Moon from Earth to be between 62 to 72 1/2 times the radius of Earth; close to the correct value of 60 times the radius of Earth.	(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably Nicaea)|(observatory on) Island of Rhodes, Greece
2,160 YBN [160 BC]	6477) The law of inertia (that a body preserves its motion) is understood by Hipparchus. Hipparchus is the first person known to reject Aristotle's theory of motion which states that an object needs a continuous force to keep the object moving, arguing instead that an initial force on an object is all that is needed and that the motion then continues indefinitely.	(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably Nicaea)|(observatory on) Island of Rhodes, Greece
2,150 YBN [150 BC]	1039) The theory that the universe is infinite in size by the Greek astronomer Seleucus {SeLYUKuS} of Seleucia. Seleucus also supports the sun-centered theory of Aristarchus.	Seleucia (on the Tigris River), Babylon
2,140 YBN [140 BC]	1070) The invention of paper in China. Paper is a sheet of fibers formed on a fine screen from a mixture of fibers and water. When the water drains away, the remaining mat of fibers is removed from the screen and dried. Paper making will reach Central Asia by 751, but not until the 1100s is there a paper mill in Europe.	Pa-chhiao near Sian in the Shensi province of China|Xian, China
2,134 YBN [134 BC]	1041) Hipparchus observes a "new star" (a nova), and creates the first star catalog that uses celestial coordinates of latitude and longitude, and that divides stars by brightness. Hipparchus also recognizes the "precession of the equinoxes"; that the position of the stars at equinox changes slightly each year, so that the north celestial pole move in a slow circle in the sky, completing a full circle in 26,700 years.	(observatory on) Island of Rhodes, Greece
2,105 YBN [105 BC]	1042) The largest and most accurate size for the Sun is calculated by Poseidonius.
2,100 YBN [100 BC]	870) The earliest known metal spur gear and mechanical computer, the Antikythera {aNTiKutEro} device (Αντικυθήρων); a hand cranked astronomical clock that shows the Metonic cycle and the phases of the Moon.	near the island of Antikythera, Mediterranean Sea
2,079 YBN [79 BC]	6535) Plums are grown in Italy.	Pompeii, Naples, Italy
2,075 YBN [75 BC]	1116) Negative numbers are used in China. Round counting rods are colored white or red for positive numbers and black for negative numbers.	China
2,073 YBN [73 BC]	6536) Sweet cherry trees are grown in Turkey.
2,056 YBN [56 BC]	1045) The theory that light is made of atoms that move very fast by Roman philosopher and poet Lucretius. In "De rerum natura" Lucretius writes (translated from Latin): "...the velocity with which these images travel is enormous: light things made of fine atoms ("corporibus") often travel very swiftly, as sunlight; it is natural then that these images should do the same; of which too there is a constant succession one following on the other like light or heat from the sun. ...".	Rome, Italy
2,050 YBN [50 BC]	1050) The first glass blowing; in Jerusalem.	(origin of glass blowing probably in the Syro-Palestine area, but earliest artifact is from) Jerusalem
2,045 YBN [01/01/45 BC]	1056) The Julian calendar: 365 days with an extra day every 4 years.	Rome (presumably)
2,040 YBN [40 BC]	1058) The earliest waterwheel, and the earliest elevator (or vertical lift) are described by Roman engineer Vitruvius. In his book "De architectura" Roman engineer Vitruvius describes the undershot water wheel and lifting platforms operated by human, animal, or water power.	Rome
2,037 YBN [37 BC]	6549) The germ theory of disease; that disease can be caused by tiny living organisms by Marcus Terentius Varro.	Rome (presumably)
2,008 YBN [8 BC]	1049) Silk from China is traded as far west as Rome.	Rome
1,991 YBN [9 AD]	1055) Stack-Casting is invented in China. In this technique multiple metal objects are cast vertically.
1,980 YBN [20 AD]	1390) The monotheistic religion: Christianity is founded, branching from Judaism.	Galilee
1,950 YBN [50 AD]	1078) The steam engine by Heron of Alexandria. Heron invents an aeolipile {E-oL-u-PIL}, which is a hollow metal sphere that rotates from the power of steam jets that escape through open tubes on each side of the sphere. Heron also reasons that because air can be compressed, air must be made of particles separated by space. Heron describes the syphon, syringe, and uses gears to make the first known odometer (a meter that indicates the distance traveled) for a chariot. The steam engine will not be used for practical purposes until the 1600s.	Alexandria, Egypt
1,950 YBN [50 AD]	6566) A wind-wheel powered machine by Heron of Alexandria.	Alexandria, Egypt
1,935 YBN [65 AD]	6432) The glass prism is described by Roman philosopher Seneca.	Rome
1,925 YBN [75 AD]	1270) The last cuneiform texts. This ends 3000 years of cuneiform writing.	Sumer/Babylon (Southern Iraq)
1,923 YBN [77 AD]	1083) The earliest Encyclopedia: Pliny the Elder's "Historia naturalis" ("Natural History").	Spain?
1,920 YBN [80 AD]	1077) An encyclopedia of medical plants and drugs.	Tingentera, Southern Spain
1,917 YBN [83 AD]	766) The earliest magnetic compass; in China.	China (more specific)
1,900 YBN [100 AD]	5861) The earliest known complete musical composition, including musical notation (the Epitaph of Seikilos).	(now Aidin, Turkey) (verify)
1,900 YBN [100 AD]	6638) The earliest distillation; in Alexandria. Distillation is the process of evaporating or boiling a liquid and condensing its vapor.	Alexandria, Egypt
1,850 YBN [150 AD]	1087) Ptolomy's "Almagest" (or "syntaxis"), which contains: a star catalog of 1022 stars (listed with their latitudes, longitudes, and magnitudes), and an Earth-centered model of the universe, with the Earth a stationary sphere in the center, surrounded by 7 larger planetary spheres, one for the Moon, the Sun, and the 5 known planets, with an additional sphere for the fixed stars.	(in Mouseion?) Alexandria, Egypt
1,850 YBN [150 AD]	6177) A bellow-fed musical organ.
1,838 YBN [162 AD]	971) The valves of the heart are described, and that the brain controls the voice is shown by Greek physician Galen of Pergamum.
1,825 YBN [175 AD]	1068) The earliest evidence of a crank-handle in China.	China
1,823 YBN [177 AD]	1030) The Christian belief in a Devil is described as a human invention by Celsus (KeLSuS).
1,800 YBN [200 AD]	1073) The earliest "press-on" printing. Chinese people put ink on Buddhist text inscribed on marble pillars, and then apply damp paper to the inscriptions to make a copy of the text onto the paper.	China
1,738 YBN [262 AD]	1031) Porphyry writes "Adversus Christianos" (Against the Christians) in 15 books, of which only fragments remain. Porfurios also advocates rights for the other species.
1,710 YBN [290 AD]	1092) An encyclopedia that summarizes 300 hundred writings on alchemy by Zosimus of Panopolis.	Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt
1,681 YBN [319 AD]	946) Christian priest of Alexandria, Arius rejects the theory that Jesus was divine.
1,679 YBN [321 AD]	4060) Constantine I establishes the seven-day week in the Roman calendar and makes Sunday the first day of the week. The Sumerians and Babylonians had divided the year into weeks of seven days each, one of which they designated as a day of recreation. The Babylonians named each of the days after one of the five planetary bodies known to them and the Sun and the Moon, a custom later adopted by the Romans.	Constantanople
1,678 YBN [322 AD]	1063) The earliest stirrup (a flat-based loop or ring hung from either side of a horse's saddle to support the rider's foot in mounting and riding).	Nanjing, China|India|Asian steppes|southern Siberia|Assyria
1,675 YBN [05/??/325 AD]	947) The Council of Nicaea {nI-SE-u} condemns the claim of Arius {u-rI-uS or AR-E-uS}, that Jesus was not divine, as a heresy.	Nicaea, Bithynia(now İznik, Turkey)
1,672 YBN [328 AD]	6451) The Arabic alphabet.	(early inscription) Namara, Syria
1,669 YBN [331 AD]	1375) Roman emperor Constantine I abolishes all pagan (polytheistic) hospitals.	Constantanople
1,609 YBN [02/24/391 AD]	1002) Roman Emperor Theodosius I prohibits the visiting of non-Christian temples (which includes the Serapeum in Alexandria).	(presumably) Rome, Italy
1,609 YBN [391 AD]	1003) The library in the Temple to Serapis (the Serapeum) in Alexandria is violently destroyed by Christian people and the temple is converted to a Christian church.	Alexandria, Egypt
1,606 YBN [08/24/394 AD]	1095) The last recorded hieroglyph inscription in Egypt. By the 400s no human will be able to read or understand hieroglyphic writing.	island of Philae, near Aswan
1,600 YBN [400 AD]	1072) The iron pillar of Delhi is built.	Vishnupadagiri, India
1,585 YBN [03/??/415 AD]	1009) The murder of Greek philosopher Hypatia by Christian people.	(steps of a church called The Caesarium ) Alexandria, Egypt
1,584 YBN [416 AD]	1011) The Museum, the temple to the Muses, is most likely destroyed by Christians, like the temple to Sarapis around this time.
1,552 YBN [448 AD]	1043) Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II orders all non-Christian books burned.
1,501 YBN [499 AD]	1309) The Earth rotation around its own axis is described by Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata.	Kusumapura (modern Patna), India
1,500 YBN [500 AD]	1101) The first clinker-built boats (planks are overlapped and joined by sewing). The Viking ships.	Scandinavia
1,500 YBN [500 AD]	1102) The first boats with a bulkhead, a vertical wall that divides a ship into compartments to add rigidity and prevent the spread of water leakage.	China
1,500 YBN [500 AD]	1329) Paper made of bark is used in America.	Yucatán Peninsula
1,472 YBN [528 AD]	1426) The law of inertia is confirmed by John Philoponus, a Christian philosopher in Alexandria, who recognizes that the medium is actually an impediment to a projectile's motion.	Alexandria, Egypt
1,471 YBN [529 AD]	1014) Byzantine {BiZeNTEN} Emperor Justinian closes the schools of Alexandria and Athens (including Plato's Academy).	Athens, Greece (and Alexandria,Egypt)
1,458 YBN [542 AD]	1381) The Hôtel-Dieu in Lyon is founded: the earliest hospital in France.	Lyon, France
1,411 YBN [589 AD]	1328) Toilet paper is used in China.	China
1,400 YBN [600 AD]	1111) The earliest windmill, in Persia. This windmill uses a vertical shaft and horizontal sails to grind grain.	Persia (Iran)
1,387 YBN [613 AD]	1391) The monotheistic religion: Islam is founded.	Mecca, Arabia (modern Saudi Arabia)
1,360 YBN [640 AD]	1120) The first flame throwing weapon: "Greek fire".	Constantinople
1,300 YBN [700 AD]	1118) The numerals (0 through 9), and decimal notation are used in Pakistan. Negative numbers are written with a plus symbol "+" after them.	Bakhshali (near modern Peshawar, Pakistan)
1,249 YBN [751 AD]	1253) Acids are prepared and identified by Arabian alchemist Jabir. Jabir prepares weak nitric acid, and distills vinegar to get strong acetic acid.	Kufa, (now Iraq)
1,230 YBN [770 AD]	1060) Wood-cut Printing. Carved wood block is a substitute to pressing paper onto marble pillars covered in ink. Text is written on a paper, applied with rice paste to a block of wood, the uninked parts are cut away, the block is inked with a paintbrush, a sheet of paper spread on it, and the back of the sheet rubbed with a brush.	Japan
1,219 YBN [781 AD]	1254) Lower case letters are created by English scholar Alcuin (oLKWiN).	Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York, England
1,211 YBN [789 AD]	1256) Charlemagne {soRlemAN} (CE c742-814) establishes schools where math and grammar are taught.	Aachen, in north-west Germany
1,204 YBN [796 AD]	1255) Alcuin establishes a school in Tours, France where scribes are trained to carefully copy manuscripts.	Tours, France
1,200 YBN [800 AD]	6221) String instruments are played with a bow.	River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan (Central Asia)
1,185 YBN [815 AD]	1021) The "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) is founded in Baghdad, Iraq, by Caliph al-Mamun. The "Bayt al-Hikma" is where many scientific Greek, Persian and Indian works are translated into Arabic.	Baghdad
1,175 YBN [825 AD]	1257) The words "algebra" and "algorithm", and the numerals (0 through 9) and decimal point notation of India are recorded in books by House of Wisdom scholar Al-Khwārizmī {oLKWoriZmE}.	(House of Wisdom) Bagdad, Iraq
1,150 YBN [850 AD]	1144) Gunpowder is invented in China The earliest gunpowder, black powder, is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.	China
1,100 YBN [900 AD]	1379) A health science school is founded in Salerno, Italy. The school is exceptional for the time in accepting Arab and Jewish people, and women.	Salerno (near Naples), Italy
1,100 YBN [900 AD]	5865) The first polyphonic (many-voiced) music (Organum), and unambiguously identifiable pitches.	northern part of the West Frankish empire|Possibly written in what is now Eastern France
1,095 YBN [905 AD]	1303) Gypsum plaster is used to hold broken bones in place by Al-Razi {oL-rAZE}, who also openly rejects Islam and other religions.	Rayy (near Tehran, Iran)
1,080 YBN [920 AD]	6183) Norwegian explorers reach North America.	L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland
1,040 YBN [960 AD]	6186) The earliest rocket in China; gun-powder rockets probably in hollow bamboo tubes.	China
1,036 YBN [964 AD]	1502) A catalog of 1,018 stars giving positions, magnitudes, and colors is created by Persian astronomer Al-Sufi. This book includes Arabic star names which, in corrupted form, are still in use today.	(court of the Emire Adud ad-Daula in) Isfahan, Persia (modern Iran)
1,024 YBN [976 AD]	1307) The earliest Arabic numerals in Europe.
1,019 YBN [981 AD]	1385) The Al-Adudi Hospital is founded in Baghdad.	Baghdad, Iraq
1,000 YBN [1000 AD]	1022) The Encyclopedia the "Suda".
1,000 YBN [1000 AD]	1054) Paper money is used in China. Initially paper money represents promises to pay specified amounts of metal coin money.	China
990 YBN [1010 AD]	1311) Persian physician Ibn Sina's "Canon of Medicine"; the most important health science text until the time of Harvey 500 years later.	Hamadan, Iran
975 YBN [1025 AD]	5868) Musical staff notation and the solmization {SoL-mi-ZA-suN} syllables (ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la) by Italian monk Guido d’Arezzo {u-reTSO}.	(Cathedral school) Arezzo, Italy
970 YBN [1030 AD]	1409) The daily rotation of Earth and the attraction of objects to the center of the Earth is recognized by Persian scholar Al-Biruni.	Ghazna, Afghanistan
962 YBN [1038 AD]	1308) The pin-hole camera (or camera obscura) by Ibn al-Haytham {iBN oL HIteM} (in Latin: Alhazen (oLHoZeN)).	Cairo, Egypt
959 YBN [1041 AD]	1124) Movable type printing, where individual blocks can be put together to form a text, is invented in China. Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng uses movable type made of clay hardened by baking. Sheng composes texts by placing the types side by side on an iron plate coated with a mixture of resin, wax, and paper ash. Gently heating this plate and then letting the plate cool solidifies the type. When done printing, the type can be detached by reheating the plate.	China
919 YBN [1081 AD]	1312) The orbit of planet Mercury is described as an oval in an Earth-centered model by astronomer Al-Zarqali.	Toledo (in Castile, now) Spain
912 YBN [1088 AD]	1339) The University of Bologna is founded.	Bologna, Italy
900 YBN [1100 AD]	5883) Non-religious (secular) music evolves in France.	Provence, France (Southern France)
894 YBN [1106 AD]	1411) Al-Ghazzali's {oL-Go-Zo-lE} "The Incoherence of the Philosophers" slows the influence of ancient Greek philosophy in Arab and Persian nations.	(Niẓāmīyah college) Nishapur, Iran
868 YBN [1132 AD]	1146) The first cannon and gun; in China.	Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China
850 YBN [1150 AD]	6239) The first stringed instrument to use a keyboard, the organistrum.	Europe
833 YBN [1167 AD]	1340) The University of Oxford is founded.	Oxford, England (now: United Kingdom)
830 YBN [1170 AD]	1319) The University of Paris is founded.	Paris, France
820 YBN [1180 AD]	6476) Ibn Rushd {iBN rusD} (in Latin: Averroës) {uVROEZ} writes a counter to Ghazzali's attack on philosophers, but after Averroes the Islamic world will enter a Dark Age, where scientific inquiry will be lost, just as the Christian world is emerging from a Dark Age.	Cordova, Spain (presumably)
816 YBN [11/??/1184 AD]	1153) The start of the Inquisition. Pope Lucius III (Ubaldo Allucingoli) makes burning the official punishment for heresy {HAReSE}. The Inquisition will last until the 1800s.	Verona, Italy
800 YBN [09/08/1200 AD]	1352) The University of Perugia in Italy is founded.	Perugia, Italy
791 YBN [1209 AD]	1342) The University of Cambridge is founded.	Cambridge, England
785 YBN [06/15/1215 AD]	1520) The Magna Carta limits the power of the King of England.	Runnymede, England
784 YBN [1216 AD]	1155) The earliest artesian well, a well from which water flows under natural pressure without pumping.	Artois, France
782 YBN [1218 AD]	1344) The University of Salamanca in Spain is founded.	Salamanca, Spain
778 YBN [1222 AD]	1346) The University of Padua in Italy is founded.	Padua, Italy
776 YBN [06/05/1224 AD]	1347) The University of Naples is founded.	Naples, Italy
772 YBN [1228 AD]	1392) The theory that all matter is made of light by English scholar, Robert Grosseteste (GrOSTeST).	Oxford, England
766 YBN [1234 AD]	1125) The movable metal block printing press is invented in Korea.	Korea
758 YBN [1242 AD]	1403) Instructions for making gunpowder are introduced to Europe by Roger Bacon.	Oxford, England
748 YBN [1252 AD]	1416) Alfonso X of Castille, a Spanish monarch, founds schools, and encourages learning. Alfonso orders the creation of the Alfonsine Tables, astronomical tables that will be used for more than 300 years.	Castile, Spain
733 YBN [1267 AD]	1401) Mechanically propelled ships and carriages, and that the Earth can be circumnavigated are proposed by Roger Bacon in his encyclopedia "Opus Majus".	Oxford, England
723 YBN [1277 AD]	1404) Roger Bacon is imprisoned by his fellow Franciscan Christians and his works are ordered suppressed.	Oxford, England
720 YBN [1280 AD]	5873) Musical notes are defined in terms of time ("long", "breve" {BrEV} and "semibreve") in "mensural notation" {meN-sRL} (from the Latin "measured", in the sense of division of units).	Cologne, Germany
720 YBN [1280 AD]	6238) The first eyeglasses.	Florence, Italy
700 YBN [1300 AD]	1121) The first mechanical clocks in Europe. These clocks are driven by a weight suspended from a cord wrapped many times around a shaft. As the weight descends (regulated by an escapement) the shaft turns and moves the clock hour hand.	Europe
697 YBN [1303 AD]	1351) The University of Rome is founded.	Rome, Italy
690 YBN [1310 AD]	1424) Sulfuric and other strong acids are described by False Geber, an unknown alchemist writing under the name of Jabir. Before this vinegar is the strongest acid known.	Spain
684 YBN [1316 AD]	1428) The first book devoted entirely to anatomy; by Italian anatomist Mondino De' Luzzi (MoNDEnO DA lUTSE)	Bologna, Italy
675 YBN [1325 AD]	5887) The earliest known notated organ music.	(Abbey of) Robertsbridge, Sussex, UK
665 YBN [1335 AD]	1425) The law of inertia is revived by French philosopher, Jean Buridan (BYUrEDoN).	Paris, France
652 YBN [04/07/1348 AD]	1357) The Charles University in Prague is founded, the first university in central Europe.	Prague, Czech Republic (EU)
650 YBN [1350 AD]	1168) Three-masted sailing ships are built and sailed in the Mediterranean.	Mediterranean
640 YBN [1360 AD]	1977) Uniformly accelerated motion is described, and rectangular coordinates (latitude and longitude) are used to draw geometric figures by French Roman Catholic bishop and scholar Nicholas Oresme (OrAM).	Paris, France (presumably)
635 YBN [03/12/1365 AD]	1360) The University of Vienna is founded; the oldest university in the German speaking world.	Vienna, Austria
630 YBN [1370 AD]	1978) The first translation of Aristotle from Latin into a vernacular language; French.	Paris, France (presumably)
623 YBN [1377 AD]	1979) The theory that the Earth rotates daily is revived in France by Nicholas Oresme (OrAM).	Paris, France (presumably)
603 YBN [1397 AD]	5897) The first harpsichords; in Italy.	Padua, Italy
602 YBN [1398 AD]	1364) Sungkyunkwan University in Korea is founded.	Seoul, South Korea
600 YBN [1400 AD]	1170) Caravel sailing ships are invented. A caravel is a small, highly maneuverable, three-masted ship.	Speyer, Germany and Basal, Switzerland
570 YBN [1430 AD]	6584) The magic lantern, an early image projector, is shown by Giovanni de Fontana.	Venice, Italy
565 YBN [1435 AD]	1435) The movable type printing press is introduced into Europe by German inventor, Johannes Gutenberg (GUTeNBRG).	Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France)
565 YBN [1435 AD]	1440) The laws of perspective (how to draw a three-dimensional scene on a two-dimensional plane).	Florence, Italy
560 YBN [02/12/1440 AD]	1437) Space is described as infinite in size, and stars are described as other suns with inhabited planets by Nicholas of Cusa.	Cusa, Germany
550 YBN [1450 AD]	1171) The earliest wound spiral spring and spring driven clocks, in southern Germany or northern Italy. A spring is an elastic device, such as a coil of wire, that is able to recover its original shape after being compressed or extended. The use of a spring to replace the weight to drive the wheel-train allows smaller time-keeping devices to be made.	southern Germany or northern Italy
546 YBN [1454 AD]	1436) Gutenberg (GUTeNBRG) (CE c1398-c1468) produces printed copies of the Bible, the first printed book in Europe. Printing in Europe will spread quickly, and results in low cost books. This increase in books leads to more educated and literate people. Scholars can now communicate their ideas to each other faster. The scientific revolution 100 years from now would probably be impossible without the printing press.	Mainz, Germany
533 YBN [1467 AD]	6478) The cipher wheel for encrypting messages is invented by Leon Alberti (oLBRTE).	Rome, Italy (presumably)
523 YBN [1477 AD]	1368) Uppsala {oP-So-lo} University is founded, the first university in Scandinavia.	Uppsala, Sweden
517 YBN [1483 AD]	6481) A parachute is designed by Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE).	Milan, Italy
514 YBN [1486 AD]	1467) Gliders, a helical air-screw, and an "ornithopher" a flying machine with flapping wings are designed by Da Vinci (VENcE).	Milan, Italy
508 YBN [10/12/1492 AD]	1450) Humans from Europe reach the Americas by crossing the Atlantic Ocean in three small ships commanded by Italian explorer Christopher Columbus. Columbus lands on a small island in America (probably San Salvador). In America Columbus explores, finds a new race of people, new plants, and many other new phenomena.	(probably) San Salvador
500 YBN [1500 AD]	6480) Da Vinci (VENcE) designs a screw cutting machine.	Florence, Italy
496 YBN [1504 AD]	1474) That the new lands extend too far to the South to be Asia, but instead represent a new continent unknown to ancient people, separated from Asia by a second ocean, is recognized by Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci (VeSPYUCI) for whom the new continent "America" will be named after.
491 YBN [1509 AD]	1447) Euclid is translated into Latin.	Bologna?,Italy
490 YBN [1510 AD]	1472) The anatomy of the human embryo is drawn by Da Vinci (VENcE).	Milan, Italy
487 YBN [09/25/1513 AD]	1485) Europeans reach the Pacific Ocean. Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa (BoLBOo) names the Pacific Ocean the "South Sea".	from a peak in Darién, Panama
485 YBN [1515 AD]	3222) The wheel-lock is invented; a device that strikes a spark to ignite powder in a gun.
483 YBN [10/31/1517 AD]	1389) The start of the Protestant Reformation.	Wittenberg, Germany
480 YBN [10/21/1520 AD]	1496) Magellan reaches and names the Pacific Ocean.	Straight of Magellan
478 YBN [09/08/1522 AD]	1475) Humans circumnavigate the Earth. Spanish Navigator Juan Sebastian del Cano (KonO) returns in a single remaining ship originally lead by Magellan to Seville, Spain with a crew that is the first to circumnavigate the Earth. This voyage lasts 3 years and cost 4 ships, but the spices and other merchandise brought back more than compensate for the loss. This voyage proves that Eratosthenes estimate of the size of the Earth is correct, and that of Poseidoinius and Ptolemy wrong, and that a single ocean covers the Earth.	Seville, Spain
470 YBN [1530 AD]	1503) The disease "syphillis" is described and named.	Verona, Italy (and possibly mountain villa at Incaffi)
469 YBN [1531 AD]	1546) Spanish physician Michael Servetus publishes a book that describes Jesus as only human.	Toulouse, France (presumably)
467 YBN [1533 AD]	1541) The method of triangulation to measure distance by Dutch cartographer Reiner Gemma Frisius: a base line of known length is chosen, and from its endpoints the angles of sight to a remote object are measured. The distance to the object from either endpoint can then be calculated using simple trigonometry.	Friesland (present day Netherlands) (presumably)
462 YBN [10/28/1538 AD]	1371) The University of Santo Domingo, the first university in the Western Hemisphere.	Santo Domingo, (now the) Dominican Republic
462 YBN [1538 AD]	3059) The theory that the Earth and planets rotate around a central fixed point by Girolamo Fracastro.	(University of Padua) Padua, Italy|Verona, Italy (and possibly mountain villa at Incaffi)
460 YBN [1540 AD]	1483) Copernicus and Rheticus publish the main elements of the heliocentric theory.	Frauenburg (Frombork, Poland)
460 YBN [1540 AD]	1509) That comets always have their tails pointing away from the Sun is recognized.	Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany
458 YBN [1542 AD]	1511) Appendicitis (an inflammation of the appendix) and the central canal of the spinal cord are described.
457 YBN [1543 AD]	1482) The Sun centered theory is revived by Nicolaus Copernicus.	(presumably) written in (Frauenburg, East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland; (printed in)Nuremberg, Germany
457 YBN [1543 AD]	1553) The first accurate book on human anatomy.	Basel, Switzerland
456 YBN [01/24/1544 AD]	3346) A pin-hole camera is used to observe a solar eclipse.	Louvain, Belgium
455 YBN [1545 AD]	1537) The first imaginary numbers; the square root of a negative number.	(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy (presumably)
455 YBN [1545 AD]	1543) Arteries are tied to stop bleeding and artificial limbs are created by French surgeon Ambroise Paré (PorA).	Paris, France
454 YBN [1546 AD]	1507) The scientific classification of minerals by German mineralogist, Georgius Agricola (oGriKOlo).	written: Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany| published: Basel, Switzerland
454 YBN [1546 AD]	1547) Pulmonary circulation is understood by Spanish physician, Michael Servetus (SRVETuS): that blood goes from the right side of the heart to the lung where it is mixed with air becoming red, and then to the left side of the heart where it is sent through the rest of the body. Servetus shows that no blood goes from the left side of the heart to right side through the middle wall as Galen had thought.	Vienne, France
454 YBN [1546 AD]	3057) The germ theory of disease is revived by Italian physician Girolamo Fracastoro.	Verona, Italy
451 YBN [1549 AD]	1555) A catalog of all known books in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.
449 YBN [1551 AD]	1549) The first planetary tables based on the Sun-centered theory.
448 YBN [1552 AD]	1545) The adrenal gland is identified.	Rome, Italy
447 YBN [10/27/1553 AD]	1548) Michael Servetus is burned alive for heresy {HAReSE} in Champel, Geneva, Switzerland.	Geneva, Switzerland
440 YBN [1560 AD]	1538) The first systematic computations of probabilities (for example the chance of a certain combination in the fall of 3 dice) by Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano (KoRDoNO).	Italy
440 YBN [1560 AD]	1563) The first scientific society (a group for the communication of scientific research), the precursor of the Academy of the Lynx, is formed by Italian physicist Giambattista della Porta (PoURTo).
439 YBN [1561 AD]	1562) Gabriel Fallopius identifies the tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus (now known as fallopian tubes), and the semicircular canals of the inner ear (three tubular and looped structures of the inner ear, together functioning in the maintenance of the sense of balance in the body). Fallopius names the "vagina", "placenta", "clitoris", "palate", and "cochlea" (the snail-shaped organ of hearing in the inner ear).	(University of Padua) Padua, Italy
435 YBN [1565 AD]	1558) The first illustrations of fossils.	Zurich, Swizerland (presumably)
433 YBN [1567 AD]	1512) Peristalsis is described; (involuntary progressive wave-like muscle contractions in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines that help push matter inside them).
431 YBN [1569 AD]	1550) Cyclindrical projection is used to make a world map so that lines of latitude and longitude are straight by Gerardus Mercator {mRKATR}.	Duchy of Cleves, Germany (presumably)
431 YBN [1569 AD]	1992) The symbol "i" is used for the square root of -1.	Bologna, Italy
427 YBN [1573 AD]	1575) A comet is proven to be farther away than the moon by Tycho Brahe (TIKO BroHA). Brahe also shows that the orbit of the comet is not circular, but is elongated, and so would be passing through the supposed planetary (crystal) spheres which would be impossible if such spheres actually exist.	Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden)
420 YBN [1580 AD]	3221) The earliest flintlock gun. The flintlock replaces the matchlock.	Netherlands
419 YBN [1581 AD]	1597) That two pendulums of the same length swing in the same time regardless of the amplitude is recognized by Galileo Galilei (GoLilAO).	Pisa, Italy
418 YBN [1582 AD]	1566) The Gregorian calendar: February 29th is omitted in century years which are not divisible by 400.	Rome, Italy
415 YBN [1585 AD]	1581) Decimal point notation is introduced into Europe by Simon Stevin (STEVen).	Netherlands (presumably)
414 YBN [1586 AD]	1583) Simon Stevin (STEVen) (CE 1548-1620) shows that objects of different weight fall the same distance in the same amount of time. This proves that Aristotle's claim that heavier objects fall faster is inaccurate.	Netherlands (presumably)
409 YBN [1591 AD]	1182) The first modern flush toilet is invented by John Harington.	(Palace of Queen Elizabeth) Richmond, Surrey, England
409 YBN [1591 AD]	1568) Letters are used to represent constant and unknown numbers (the first "variables") by Franciscus Vieta (VYATu).	(possibly) Paris, France
408 YBN [1592 AD]	1587) That plants, like animals, have gender is recognized.	Venice, Italy
408 YBN [1592 AD]	1613) The first thermometer is invented by Galileo Galilei. A glass tube ending in a bulb, is turned upside down in a container of water. A change in temperature of the vessel produces an expansion or contraction of the air within the partially filled vessel, which in turn changes the level of the water within it.	Padua, Italy
404 YBN [08/03/1596 AD]	1616) A variable star is discovered, a star that shows periodic changes in brightness by German astronomer David Fabricius (FoBrisEuS). Fabricius finds this star (what will be called Omicron Ceti, and later "Mira") before the use of the telescope.	Resterhave (near Dorum) East Frisia (now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands) (presumably)
404 YBN [1596 AD]	1552) Trigonometric functions (sin, cos, tan) are related to angles in a triangle instead of arcs of a circle.	Kassa, Hungary
400 YBN [02/17/1600 AD]	1578) Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at the stake for heresy. Bruno might have lived had he recanted as Galileo will, but Bruno chooses not to.	(Campo de' Fiori {flower market}) Rome, Italy
400 YBN [1600 AD]	1564) That the pupil of the eye changes its size is demonstrated, fetal development of many animals compared, and the first detailed description of the placenta.	Padua, Italy (presumably)
400 YBN [1600 AD]	1571) That the Earth is a spherical magnet on which a compass points to the magnetic poles is recognized by William Gilbert. Gilbert is the first to use the terms electric attraction, electric force, and magnetic pole. Gilbert also invents the first known electroscope, a device to measure the quantity of static electricity, and the first to distinguish clearly between electric and magnetic phenomena.	London, England (presumably)
397 YBN [1603 AD]	1636) The first star catalog to show the entire celestial sphere, and an ordered star naming system are published by German astronomer, Johann Bayer (BIR). In Bayer's system each star is named after the constellation associated with it in order of brightness, for example Betelgeuse, the brightest star in Orion is named Alpha Orionis, and Rigel is Beta Orionis.	Augsburg, Germany
397 YBN [1603 AD]	3678) The first synthetic luminescent material; barium sulfide by Vincenzo Cascariolo. Luminescence is light emission that cannot be attributed merely to the temperature of the emitting body. Various types of luminescence are often distinguished according to the source of the energy which excites the emission.	Bologna, Italy
396 YBN [1604 AD]	1622) The inverse squared law of light is described by Johannes Kepler: that the intensity of light is inversely related to the square of the distance. Kepler also understands that light enters the eye through the pupil and forms an upside-down image on the retina.	Prague, (now: Czech Republic) (presumably)
394 YBN [1606 AD]	1589) The preparation of hydrochloric acid, tin tetrachloride, ammonium sulfate, and antimony sulfide are described by Andreas Libavius (liBAVEuS).
394 YBN [1606 AD]	2099) Europeans discover and explore Australia.	Australia
392 YBN [1608 AD]	1618) The earliest telescope (a refracting telescope); which is traditionally credited to Hans Lippershey (LiPRsE), a spectacle maker in the Netherlands. Lippershey places a double convex lens (the "object glass") at the farther end of a tube, and a double concave lens (the "eyepiece") at the nearer end. This is a refracting telescope, which bends light out using two transparent lens.	Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland) (modern: Netherlands)
391 YBN [1609 AD]	1599) The "law of falling bodies"; that the distance covered by a falling body is proportional to the square of the elapsed time is understood by Galileo Galilei {GoL-i-lAO GoL-i-LAE}. Galilei also determines that the path of a projectile is a parabola recognizing that two forces can work on an object at the same time.	(University of Padua) Padua, Italy
391 YBN [1609 AD]	1619) That planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse, and that a line connecting a planet and the Sun will sweep over equal areas in equal times is shown by Johannes Kepler; (Kepler's first two laws of planetary motion).	Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center)
390 YBN [01/??/1610 AD]	1605) The moons of Jupiter are first seen and their period determined by Galileo. Galileo Galilei finds that planet Jupiter has four moons, visible only by telescope, that circle Jupiter with regular motions. Within a few weeks Galileo determines the periods of each moon.	(University of Padua) Padua, Venice, Italy
390 YBN [12/11/1610 AD]	6485) The phases of planet Venus are seen by Galileo.	Florence, Italy
390 YBN [1610 AD]	1626) Kepler confirms Galileo's finding of the moons of Jupiter and names these moons "satellites".	Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
390 YBN [1610 AD]	6488) The earliest Microscope; a compound light microscope, often credited to Zacharias Janson, like Lippershey, a spectacle maker in Middleburgh, Netherlands.	Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland) (modern: Netherlands)
389 YBN [06/13/1611 AD]	1617) That the Sun has spots and rotates around its own axis is first shown by Johannes Fabricius (FoBrisEuS).	Osteel, East Frisia (now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands)
389 YBN [1611 AD]	1627) A story about a man who travels to the moon by Kepler.	Prague, (now: Czech Republic)
388 YBN [1612 AD]	1595) A thermometer is used to measure body temperature.	Padua, Italy (presumably)
388 YBN [1612 AD]	3680) The theory of storage of light; that light can be absorbed in materials and re-emitted later by Giulio Cesare La Galla. La Galla creates this theory to explain luminescence. In this view light must be absorbed, like a sponge absorbs water, and this supports the theory that light is a material substance.	(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy
386 YBN [1614 AD]	1584) Exponential notation and logarithms are invented by Scottish mathematician John Napier (nAPER).	Scotland (presumably)
384 YBN [1616 AD]	1608) Copernicanism is declared a heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo Borghese).	Rome, Italy
384 YBN [1616 AD]	1644) The circulatory system is described by William Harvey; that the heart is a muscle that contracts to push blood out, that blood can only move in one direction in blood vessels (not back and forth as Galen had believed), and that blood moves in a circle from the heart to the arteries, from the arteries to the veins, and through the veins back to the heart.	London, England
384 YBN [1616 AD]	1831) The reflecting telescope is built by Niccolò Zucchi. A reflecting telescope focuses light reflected off a parabolic shaped (concave) mirror instead of through a lens. These telescopes remove the problem of "chromatic aberration" of refraqcting telescopes; how light is separated into different frequencies (or colors) in refraction.	Rome, Italy
383 YBN [01/15/1617 AD]	6491) The first double (or binary) star system is observed by Galileo (and probably Castelli): Mizar {mIZoR} in Ursa Major.	(University of Florence) Florence, Italy
381 YBN [1619 AD]	1632) That the square of the period of orbit of a planet is proportional to the cube of its distance from the Sun is shown; (Kepler's third law of planetary motion).	Linz, Austria
381 YBN [1619 AD]	1641) That the curvature of the lens in the human eye changes as the eye focuses to different distances is recognized by Christoph Scheiner {sInR}.	Dillingen, Germany
379 YBN [1621 AD]	1651) The law of refraction by Willebrord von Roijen Snell, which describes how a light ray bends when passing between two mediums of different density. Each medium has an index of refraction, and the ratio of those indices is equal to the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and refraction of a ray of light that passes between two mediums of different density.	Leiden, Netherlands (presumably)
376 YBN [1624 AD]	1667) Paris parliament declares that on penalty of death "no person should either hold or teach any doctrine opposed to Aristotle".	Paris, France
376 YBN [1624 AD]	6241) The submarine is invented by Cornelis Drebbel. The outer hull is made of greased leather over a wooden frame; oars sealed with tight-fitting leather flaps extend through the sides and provide for propulsion both on the surface and underwater.	Thames River, England
374 YBN [1626 AD]	1693) The sealed thermometer. Unlike Galileo's thermometer, which is open, a sealed thermometer does not vary with the air pressure.	(The Low Countries) Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg|was: Tuscany, Italy (presumably)
373 YBN [1627 AD]	1188) Gunpowder is used to crack rocks in gold and silver mines in Slovakia.	Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia
373 YBN [1627 AD]	1634) Kepler publishes the first time estimates for the never before observed "transit" of the planets Mercury and Venus across the face of the Sun.	Ulm, Germany
370 YBN [1630 AD]	1642) The Sun's period of rotation is determined to be 25.3 days by Christoph Scheiner (sInR). Scheiner also determines the inclination of the Sun's axis to the plane of the ecliptic (the projection of the orbit of Earth around the Sun onto the celestial sphere) to be 7 degrees.	Rome, Italy
369 YBN [11/07/1631 AD]	1663) The transit of Mercury across the Sun is observed by Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE).	Paris, France (presumably)
369 YBN [1631 AD]	1655) The "vernier {VRnYA or VRNER} scale", a device capable of precise measurement is invented by Pierre Vernier (VRnYA).	Ornans, France (presumably: birth and death location)
369 YBN [1631 AD]	1664) The speed of sound is measured and shown to be independent of pitch by Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE), by measuring the time difference between seeing the flash of a gun and hearing the sound over a long distance on a still day.	Paris, France (presumably)
369 YBN [1631 AD]	6580) The "pantograph" is invented, an instrument that can duplicate drawings to an adjustable scale.	Rome
367 YBN [06/22/1633 AD]	1611) Galileo is condemned to life imprisonment by the Inquisition.	Rome, Italy
365 YBN [1635 AD]	1657) The "Académie Parisienne" (the precursor to the French Academy of Sciences) is formed by Marin Mersenne (mRSeN).	Paris, France (presumably)
365 YBN [1635 AD]	1660) Frequencies of sounds are measured by Marin Mersenne (mRSeN). Mersenne also creates a law to determine the frequency of a sound from the various properties of a vibrating string.	Paris, France (presumably)
365 YBN [1635 AD]	1669) That the direction of the Earth's magnetic field changes over time is recognized.	?, England
364 YBN [1636 AD]	1219) Harvard College is founded in the Province of Massachusetts Bay.	Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
363 YBN [1637 AD]	1615) The slow swaying (or "libration" {lI-BrA-suN}) of the moon as it rotates is recognized by Galileo.	Florence, Italy
363 YBN [1637 AD]	1668) The Cartesian coordinate system, where points are plotted on a two dimensional graph, is described by René Descartes (DAKoRT).	Netherlands (presumably)
361 YBN [11/24/1639 AD]	1708) The transit of Venus is observed by Jeremiah Horrocks. From his observations Horrocks establishes the apparent diameter of Venus as 1' 12" compared with the Sun's diameter of 30', a figure much smaller than the 11' assigned by Kepler.	Hoole, Lancashire, England (presumably)
361 YBN [11/24/1639 AD]	6581) That the orbit of the Moon around the Earth is approximately elliptical (with the Earth at one focus) is shown by Horrocks. Horrocks also suggests correctly that the Sun has a perturbing effect on the Moon’s orbit.	Hoole, Lancashire, England (presumably)
360 YBN [10/??/1640 AD]	1665) That a falling object from the mast of a moving ship shares the same motion as the ship is shown by Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE).	(near the port of) Marseilles, France
360 YBN [1640 AD]	1697) The micrometer (a device for precision measurement) is invented and applied to the telescope by William Gascoigne (GasKOEN).	Middleton (West Yorkshire), England
360 YBN [1640 AD]	6490) The Earth's acceleration due to gravity is measured by Giovanni Battista Riccioli (rETcOlE).	Bologna, Italy (presumably)
359 YBN [1641 AD]	6244) The repeating gun, a gun in which ammunition is fed from a magazine.	Netherlands
358 YBN [1642 AD]	1719) A mechanical calculating machine that can add and subtract is invented by Blaise Pascal (BlAZ PoSKoL).	Rouen, France (presumably)
357 YBN [1643 AD]	1650) That Kepler's third law applies to the satellites of Jupiter is recognized.	Belgium (presumably)
357 YBN [1643 AD]	1692) The earliest vacuum (a space empty of matter), and barometer (which measures the pressure of the air of Earth) is made by Evangelista Torricelli (TORriceLlE). When Torricelli inverts a tube filled with mercury into a dish he observes that some of the mercury does not flow out and that the space above the mercury in the tube is a vacuum. This tube is empty of gas but light particles and other subatomic matter still move through the tube. This device is also the first barometer, a measure of pressure exerted by air.	Florence, Italy
356 YBN [11/22/1644 AD]	1694) The phases of Mercury are observed by Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius (HeVAlEUS).	(rooftop observatories on many houses) Danzig (now Gdansk in Poland)
356 YBN [1644 AD]	2618) The principle of the conservation of motion is described by Descartes. Descartes formally defines the law of inertia, and the conservation of motion: 1) that all objects remain in the same state of motion, changing only as a result of external causes, 2) that all matter moves in a straight line, and 3) if a moving body collides with another, if it has less force (in Latin: "vim") to continue than the other body has to resist it, it will be deflected in the opposite direction retaining its own motion, but if it has a greater force, then it will move the other body giving as much of its motion to the other body as it loses.	Netherlands (presumably)
355 YBN [1645 AD]	1844) That the strength the Sun holds the planets with decreases by the inverse distance squared is recognized by Ismaël Bullialdus.	Paris, France
352 YBN [09/19/1648 AD]	1721) Atmospheric pressure is shown to change at different elevations by Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL). This implies that empty space (a vacuum) exists above the atmosphere.	Rouen, France (presumably)
352 YBN [1648 AD]	1648) The label of "gas" is applied to a substance, and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is recognized by Flemish physician and alchemist Jan Baptista van Helmont.	Vilvoorde, Belgium
352 YBN [1648 AD]	1686) Acetone and benzene are prepared.	Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably)
350 YBN [1650 AD]	1675) The first air pump is constructed by German physicist Otto von Guericke (GAriKu). That sound cannot be produced in the absence of air is proven. This air pump is like a waterpump but airtight and is powered by hand pumping. Guericke uses the pump to create evacuated containers, and shows that a bell cannot be heard, candles will not burn, and animals cannot live in a vacuum. Guericke also demonstrates the enormous strength that two semispheres connected with a vacuum inside have. Aristotle is shown to be correct in his claim that sound cannot be produced without air.	Magdeburg, Germany (presumably)
350 YBN [1650 AD]	1722) The hydraulic press by Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL). Pascal understands the basis of the hydraulic press, that pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted equally through the liquid in all directions regardless of the area to which the pressure is applied; (Pascal's law).	Rouen, France (presumably)
348 YBN [1652 AD]	1775) Lymphatic vessels are identified by Olof Rudbeck (rUDBeK). The lymphatics resemble blood vessels but have thinner walls and carry the clear, watery fluid portion of the blood (lymph). This fluid is forced out of the thin-walled capillaries into the spaces around the cells, forming the interstitial fluid, and also is carried back by the lymphatics into the blood vessels.	Uppsala, Sweden
346 YBN [1654 AD]	1720) The science of probability is created by Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) and Pierre de Fermat (FARmo).	Paris, France (presumably)
345 YBN [03/25/1655 AD]	1763) The first known moon of Saturn, Titan is identified by Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ).	The Hague, Netherlands (presumably)
345 YBN [1655 AD]	1702) Exponents are extended to include negative numbers and fractions by John Wallis.	(University of Oxford) Oxford, England
344 YBN [1656 AD]	1764) The pendulum {PeNJUluM or PeNDUluM} clock.	The Hague, Netherlands (presumably)
342 YBN [1658 AD]	1804) Red blood cells are observed and described by Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM).	Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably)
341 YBN [1659 AD]	1755) The lymph glands (or lymph nodes) are identified by Marcello Malpighi (moLPEJE).	Bologna, Italy
341 YBN [1659 AD]	1771) The ring of Saturn is seen by Christaan Huygens. Huygens also measures the apparent size of the planets in seconds of arc.	The Hague, Netherlands (presumably)
340 YBN [11/28/1660 AD]	1704) The Royal Society is formed by 12 men at Gresham College in London.	London, England
340 YBN [1660 AD]	1737) Gas is collected for the first time by Robert Boyle. Boyle also reports that electrical attraction is transmitted through empty space (a vacuum), and that when dropped from the same height, a feather and lump of lead land at the same time in a vacuum.	Oxford, England (presumably)
340 YBN [1660 AD]	3142) A sub-atmospheric pressure is measured by Robert Boyle using a mercury filled tube (a manometer {mu-noM-i-TR}) to measure the pressure produced in a bell jar by a piston pump.	Oxford, England (presumably)
339 YBN [1661 AD]	1738) Acids, bases, and neutral liquids are recognized using acid-base indicators by Robert Boyle. In addition Boyle defines an element as any substance that cannot be broken down farther into another substance.	Oxford, England (presumably)
339 YBN [1661 AD]	1754) The connection of arteries and veins is observed by Marcello Malpighi (moLPEJE). Malpighi (moLPEJE) observes microscopic blood vessels, eventually named "capillaries", in the wings of bats, that connect the smallest parts of the arteries with the smallest parts of the veins.	Bologna, Italy
338 YBN [1662 AD]	1739) That pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related is explained by Robert Boyle (Boyle's Law). Using a long J-shaped tube to trap air using mercury, Boyle finds that adding twice the mercury, adds twice the pressure, and the volume of air in the end of the tube is reduced by half, and when half of the mercury is removed the volume of air is doubled.	Oxford, England (presumably)
337 YBN [1663 AD]	2247) The first static electricity generator is built by Otto von Guericke (GAriKu): a sulfur globe is rotated against a cloth. With this globe Guericke produces sizable electric sparks.	Magdeburg, Germany (presumably)
336 YBN [1664 AD]	1666) The theory that light is made of particles is revived by Rene Descartes (DAKoRT), who compares light to a ball, and is the first to describe the two major theories of light: that light may be transmitted by particle collision (the "wave" or "constant collision" theory) or by particles that move mostly without collision through space (the "corpuscular" or "rare collision" theory).	(in 1633:) Netherlands (presumably)
336 YBN [1664 AD]	1714) Typhoid fever is described.	Oxford, England (presumably)
335 YBN [1665 AD]	1688) The theory that comets move in elliptical orbits by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (BoreLE).	Pisa, Italy (presumably)
335 YBN [1665 AD]	1707) The theory of light "diffraction" (that light bends around the sides of a hole it passes through) by Francesco Grimaldo {GrEmoLDO} (or Grimaldi} {GrEmoLDE}. Grimaldo passes light through two narrow holes, one behind the other. The light then reflects off a white surface behind the two holes. Grimaldo observes that the width of the light on the white surface is wider than the cone of light that enters the holes and believes that this is a new property of light he names "diffraction", theorizing that light bends around the sides of the hole. But Grimaldo fails to account for light that reflects off the inside surface of the holes which can light areas outside of the cone of unreflected light.	Bologna, Italy (presumably)
335 YBN [1665 AD]	1726) The period of a Mars day is measured as 24 hours and 40 minutes by Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko-SEnE).	Bologna, Italy
335 YBN [1665 AD]	1776) The first blood transfusion is performed by Richard Lower.	London?, England
335 YBN [1665 AD]	1799) The wave theory of light is firmly established by Robert Hooke, with the medium being a fluid between the stars associated with the ancient concept of aether. In this view light is interpreted as analogous to sound in being a motion that results from the collisions of many transparent material particles of a medium. Hooke compares the spreading of light to the spreading of a circle in water caused by the sinking of a stone. Hooke also is the first to use the word "cells" to describe the tiny rectangular holes he identifies in a thin sliver of cork viewed under a microscope, and publishes the first images of a microorganism (and protist): the fungi in a mold named "Mucor".	London, England
334 YBN [10/??/1666 AD]	1827) Calculus is invented by Isaac Newton. Calculus is a system of calculating, using two main tools: differentiation and integration. Differentiation determines the rate of change of an equation, and integration determines the length, area or volume described by an equation.	Cambridge, England
334 YBN [12/22/1666 AD]	1712) The Academy of Sciences is established in Paris by Jean-Baptiste Colbert.	Paris, France
334 YBN [1666 AD]	1757) The structure of the liver, spleen, and kidney is described.	Bologna, Italy
333 YBN [06/15/1667 AD]	1815) The first human blood transfusion.	?, France
333 YBN [1667 AD]	1816) The first study of a "convergent series", a series with an infinite number of members but a finite sum.	Padua?, Italy
332 YBN [11/26/1668 AD]	3257) The equation Distance = velocity multiplied by Time is identified by John Wallis. Wallis also identifies the concept and equation of momentum (mass times velocity), and the theory of the conservation of momentum. Note that if motion and matter cannot be converted into each other, then the conservation of momentum is actually a combination of the conservation of mass and the conservation of motion.	London, England (presumably)
332 YBN [1668 AD]	1727) Jupiter's period of daily rotation of nine hours fifty-six minutes is determined by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) by observing the movement of spots of Jupiter's clouds. Cassini is also the first to observe the shadows of Jupiter's moons as they pass between Jupiter and the Sun.	(Observatory at) Panzano (near Bologna), Italy
332 YBN [1668 AD]	1736) The theory of "spontaneous regeneration" of flies from meat is disproven by Francesco Redi (rADE), by proving that maggots only appear in meat placed in open vessels which flies can land on, and not in closed vessels.	Florence, Italy (presumably)
331 YBN [03/18/1669 AD]	3258) The concept of energy (mass multiplied by velocity squared), and the theory of conservation of energy is defined by Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ).	The Hague, Netherlands (presumably)
331 YBN [1669 AD]	1735) The phenomenon of "double refraction" is first observed in calcite by Erasmus Bartholin (BoRTUliN). Bartholin notes that objects viewed through calcite are seen double and presumes that light traveling through the crystal is refracted at two angles, so that two rays of light emerge where one had entered. This phenomenon is therefore called "double refraction". But reflection of light from the two planes at different angles within the crystal can also explain this phenomenon.	Copenhagen, Denmark
331 YBN [1669 AD]	1758) The first detailed description of invertebrate anatomy, by Malpighi (moLPEJE).	Bologna, Italy
331 YBN [1669 AD]	1774) The element Phosphorus is identified by Hennig Brand who obtains a heavy glowing liquid by distilling a red oil distilled from urine with carbon.	Hamburg, Germany (presumably)
331 YBN [1669 AD]	1793) The theory that when a substance is burned, a combustible earth is liberated by German chemist Johann Joachim Becher (BeKR). This leads to the phlogiston theory by Georg Stahl, a theory that will be proved wrong by Lavoisier.	?, Germany
329 YBN [1671 AD]	1729) Iapetus (IoPeTuS), the moon of Saturn is identified by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE).	(Paris Observatory) Paris, France
329 YBN [1671 AD]	1854) A calculating machine that can add, subtract, multiply and divide is constructed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (LIPniTS).	Mainz, Germany
329 YBN [1671 AD]	2119) The element Hydrogen is identified by Robert Boyle who finds that Hydrogen gas is released by mixing iron filings and acids and is flammable. The gas burns so easily that Boyle describes the gas as "inflammable solution of Mars" (Mars being the word for iron).	Oxford, England (presumably)
328 YBN [02/19/1672 AD]	1829) The corpuscular theory of light is firmly established by Isaac Newton. In this view light is thought to be made of material particles that move through any medium. Newton shows that color is a property of light, not of objects. Newton also separates white light into primary colors and recombines primary colors to form white light. Newton also shows that light of different colors refract at different angles.	Cambridge, England
328 YBN [1672 AD]	1730) The moon of Saturn, Rhea {rEo} is identified by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE).	Paris, France
328 YBN [1672 AD]	1731) The scale of our star system is measured by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE). Cassini (Ko SEnE) uses the parallax of Mars to measure the distance from Earth to Mars. This then provides a scale to our star system, allowing the distance to all the other planets to be calculated. The Sun is calculated to be 138 million km (or 86 million miles) from Earth.	Paris, France;Guiana, South America
327 YBN [1673 AD]	1819) The ovary is named and the follicles of the ovary identified.	Delft, Netherlands (presumably)
327 YBN [1673 AD]	3377) The combustion of gun powder is used to create a vacuum by Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ).	Paris, France (presumably)
326 YBN [09/07/1674 AD]	1781) Individual unicellular protists are first described by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).	Delft, Netherlands
326 YBN [1674 AD]	1825) The element Oxygen is identified by John Mayow (mAO).	Oxford, England
325 YBN [1675 AD]	1732) The space between the ring of Saturn (the "Cassini division") is seen by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE).	Paris, France
324 YBN [06/13/1676 AD]	1837) The binomial theorem is described by Newton. The binomial theorem is the statement that, for any positive integer n, the nth power of the sum of two numbers a and b may be expressed as the sum of n + 1 terms.	Cambridge, England
324 YBN [10/09/1676 AD]	1782) Individual bacteria are first observed by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).	Delft, Netherlands
324 YBN [1676 AD]	1851) The speed of light is shown to be finite and is measured by Olaus Rømer (ROEmR), by subtracting the time it takes for the moon of Jupiter, Io to enter and exit the shadow of Jupiter when the Earth is moving toward Jupiter, from the time it takes when the Earth is moving away from Jupiter.	(Paris Observatory) Paris, France
324 YBN [1676 AD]	1870) The first observatory in the southern hemisphere.	Saint Helena
323 YBN [1677 AD]	1784) Sperm cells are first described by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).	Delft, Netherlands
322 YBN [01/??/1678 AD]	6564) The first picture of red blood cells.	Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably)
322 YBN [06/25/1678 AD]	3862) The first woman to teach at a university after the collapse of science of the 400s CE;Helena Piscopia at the University of Padua.	(University of Padua) Padua, Italy
322 YBN [1678 AD]	1794) The helical spring is described by Robert Hooke.	London, England (presumably)|(if 1657:) Oxford, England (presumably)
322 YBN [1678 AD]	1802) That the force that restores a spring (or any elastic system) to its equilibrium position is proportional to the distance by which it is displaced from that equilibrium position is recognized by Robert Hooke (and is called "Hooke's Law").	London, England (presumably)
322 YBN [1678 AD]	1871) The first catalog of telescopically located stars seen only from the southern hemisphere is published by Edmond Halley.	London, England (presumably)
322 YBN [1678 AD]	3592) Direct neuron activation (or direct neuron writing). Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) contracts a muscle by making neurons fire using electricity. Swammerdam hangs a frog by a silver wire and finds that the frog leg twitches when a brass ring contacts it. This electrical muscle movement will eventually lead to very precise remote neuron stimulation.	Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably)
321 YBN [03/15/1679 AD]	1858) Binary numbers are established by Gottfried Leibniz. This system will form the basis of all modern computers.	Hannover, Germany
321 YBN [1679 AD]	1863) The first pressure cooker; by Denis Papin (PoPoN). Water boiled in an air-tight container raises the pressure in the container, which raises the boiling point of water allowing food to cook faster. A safety value prevents explosions.	London, England
320 YBN [1680 AD]	1690) The movement of bones by muscles in terms of levers is correctly explained.	Rome, Italy (presumably)
320 YBN [1680 AD]	1740) That phosphorus and sulfur burst into flame instantly if rubbed together is discovered by Robert Boyle. This is the basis of the match.	London, England (presumably)
318 YBN [03/03/1682 AD]	1788) The cell nucleus is described by Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) who draws the nucleus of red blood cells of a cod and salmon.	Delft, Netherlands
318 YBN [1682 AD]	1821) The sex organs of plants, the pistils (female) and stamens (male) are identified by Nehemiah Grew. Grew also understands that grains of pollen produced by the stamens are the equivalent to sperm cells in animals.	presented: London, England
317 YBN [07/16/1683 AD]	6588) The first picture of individual unicellular protists; by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).	Delft, Netherlands
317 YBN [09/12/1683 AD]	1785) The first picture of bacteria; by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK).	Delft, Netherlands
316 YBN [1684 AD]	1733) The moons of Saturn: Dione (DIOnE) (Greek Διώνη) and Tethys (TEtuS) (Greek Τηθύς) are identified by Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE).	(Paris Observatory) Paris, France
316 YBN [1684 AD]	1822) Seawater is converted into freshwater.	London, England (presumably)
315 YBN [1685 AD]	3348) A portable pin-hole camera by Johann Zahn.	(Würzburg praemonstrantensian monastery) Würzburg, Germany
313 YBN [1687 AD]	1845) The universal law of gravitation by Isaac Newton; that all matter attracts other matter with a force that is the product of their masses, and the inverse of their distance squared. Newton also theorizes that light particles are affected by gravity. Newton clearly distinguishes between mass and weight, viewing mass as the quantity of matter contained in a body, and defines a force in terms of mass and acceleration with the equation F=ma. The famous equation Newton describes for the force of gravitation is: F=Gm1m2/d^2 where m1 and m2 are the masses of two objects (for example, the Earth and Moon), d is the distance between their centers, G is the gravitational constant, and F is the force of gravitational attraction between them. Newton holds that this law is true for any two objects in the universe. Newton shows that the acceleration on any mass from a second mass due to gravity can be calculated as the mass of the second object divided by the distance squared (a2=Gm1/distance^2). This is the first modeling of the motion of bodies orbiting the Sun based on the theory of gravity. Note that the initial model is a static model that does not calculate the future positions of bodies by iterating for each second into the future starting from the current positions and motions of each body, but instead uses equations that represent constant repetitive motions with additions to account for the regular perturbations from other bodies. The problem with this initial static model is that small fluctuations due to small incalculable factors, like small changes in mass and the motions of the liquids of the Sun and planets, mean that the current positions of bodies must constantly updated and corrected.	Cambridge, England (presumably)
313 YBN [1687 AD]	1890) A hygrometer: a device that measures the quantity of moisture in the air.	Paris, France
313 YBN [1687 AD]	3895) That a mite causes scabies, a skin inflammation, is proven and the mite first seen with a microscope by Giovan Cosimo Bonomo.	Livorno, Italy
310 YBN [1690 AD]	1200) A gear-cutting machine (a machine for cutting gears out of cylinders of metal) is invented by Christopher Polhem.	Sweden
310 YBN [1690 AD]	1864) The steam engine is reinvented by Denis Papin (PoPoN). Papin builds a pump with a piston raised by steam.	Leipzig, Germany
310 YBN [1690 AD]	1873) A diving bell by Edmond Halley.	London, England (presumably)
307 YBN [1693 AD]	1745) The first logical classification of animals, based mainly of hoofs, toes, and teeth.	Cambridge?, England
306 YBN [1694 AD]	1888) A water wheel is used to lift ore from a mine by Christopher Polhem (PULHeM).	(Falun Mine) Blankstoten, Sweden
305 YBN [1695 AD]	3260) The quantity mass times velocity squared is named "vis-visa" ("the living force"), and the theory that vis-visa, not momentum is the quantity always conserved, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (LIPniTS). This quantity will later be called "energy" by Thomas Young.	Hannover, Germany (presumably)
303 YBN [04/20/1697 AD]	1887) The "laboratorium mechanicum" is established by Christopher Polhem (PULHeM) as a technical school and experimental center.	Stockholm, Sweden
302 YBN [07/02/1698 AD]	1868) The first practical steam engine. The steam engine allows water to be pumped up and then released to turn a water wheel, which removes the need for factories to be located near running water.	?, England
302 YBN [1698 AD]	1777) The size and distance of other stars is measured by Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ). Huygens makes the first specific estimate of the distance and size of the stars by comparing the apparent size of Sirius to a fractional portion of the Sun.	The Hague, Netherlands (presumably)
301 YBN [1699 AD]	1896) The theory and laws of friction. Friction is a force that resists sliding or rolling of one solid object over another.	Paris, France (presumably)
301 YBN [1699 AD]	2008) The theory that color is determined by the frequency of light by Nicolas Malebranche.	Paris, France
300 YBN [07/11/1700 AD]	1857) The "Akademie der Wissenschaften" (Academy of Sciences) is established in Berlin by King Frederick I of Prussia at the request of Leibniz.	Berlin, Germany
300 YBN [1700 AD]	1885) The "phlogiston theory" of combustion by George Stahl. Phlogiston is thought to be the combustible element in substances.	Halle, Germany
300 YBN [1700 AD]	3593) A frog muscle is caused to move by rubbing a cut nerve with a scalpel by Joseph-Guichard du Verney.	Paris, France (presumably)
300 YBN [1700 AD]	6251) The pianoforte (or piano) is invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence, Italy. The piano is a harpsichord but with hammers instead of plectra.	Florence, Italy
299 YBN [1701 AD]	1875) The first magnetic charts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.	London, England (presumably)
298 YBN [1702 AD]	1892) That liquids such as water always boil at the same temperature is determined by Guillaume Amontons (omoNToN).	Paris, France (presumably)
295 YBN [1705 AD]	1872) The path of a comet is correctly calculated by Edmond Halley.	London, England (presumably)
292 YBN [1708 AD]	4481) Light rays are shown to move low-mass objects by Guillaume Homberg.	Paris, France
291 YBN [1709 AD]	1194) The first successful coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron. Coke is the solid product resulting from the destructive distillation of coal in an oven. The result of inexpensive iron helps lead to the industrial revolution.	England
290 YBN [1710 AD]	3773) The first theory of relativity by George Berkeley (BoRKlA); that a motion requires at least two bodies. Berkeley (BoRKlA) rejects the theory of absolute space, time, and motion accepted by Newton.	(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland
288 YBN [1712 AD]	1889) An improved steam engine by Thomas Newcomen. Newcomen's engine does not use high-pressure steam; steam raises a piston, and cold water is then used to condense the steam, and atmospheric pressure lowers the piston.	Dudley Castle, Staffordshire, England
287 YBN [03/28/1713 AD]	6594) The mass and density of the planets are determined and the theory that the Universe is made of mostly empty space by Newton. Newton calculates the mass of Jupiter to be around 1/1000th the mass of the Sun, Saturn around 1/2000th, and the Earth to be 1/200000th the mass of the Sun. For densities Newton has the Earth about 4 times more dense than the Sun, Jupiter 3/4 the density of the Sun, and Saturn only 1/2 the density of the Sun. Newton also allows that gravitational attraction may arise as a result of emissions from the bodies themselves, or by the action of a material medium. Newton recognizes that the Sun is not the center of gravitation and is moved by the gravity of the other planets.	(Dabam) London, England
286 YBN [1714 AD]	1925) A thermometer that uses mercury and the Fahrenheit temperature scale by Gabriel Fahrenheit (ForeNHIT). Fahrenheit also notices that boiling point changes with change in pressure.	Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably)
282 YBN [1718 AD]	1876) The movement of the stars over long periods of time is proven by Halley. Before this most people believed that stars unlike the planets never move in relation to each other. This adds proof against the ancient claim that the stars are fixed on a celestial sphere.
280 YBN [1720 AD]	6593) The apparent size of Jupiter is measured to be 39 seconds of arc.	(Pound's observatory) Wanstead, Essex
280 YBN [1720 AD]	6650) The theory that space is mostly dark because light from other stars is too far to be going in our direction.
275 YBN [1725 AD]	3604) A machine uses a perforated roll of paper to form patterns in textiles. Basile Bouchon builds a device which selects the cords to be drawn to form the pattern in a textile according to the perforated pattern in a roll of paper. Perforated paper is the basis for early mechanical computers, and perforated film.	Lyon, France
274 YBN [1726 AD]	3381) "Coal gas", an inflammable gas made mostly of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide is produced by distillation of coal.	Teddington, England (presumably)
271 YBN [01/??/1729 AD]	1931) The "aberration of starlight" is discovered; an apparent slight change in the positions of stars (in a small ellipse) caused by the yearly motion of the Earth.	Kew, England
271 YBN [1729 AD]	1884) The first achromatic lens is made with a combination of crown glass and flint glass. This lens solves the problem of chromatic aberration caused by the different frequencies that make up white light being refracted to different amounts by the glass, each color being focused at a different point.	?, England
271 YBN [1729 AD]	1957) That electricity can flow is discovered by Stephen Gray. Gray transmits electricity around 150 meters through a hemp thread supported by silk cords and even farther through metal wire.	London, England
270 YBN [1730 AD]	1941) The element cobalt is identified.	Stockholm, Sweden
267 YBN [12/27/1733 AD]	1965) The theory that electricity is made of two different fluids by Charles Du Fay. Du Fay identifies two kinds of electricity: "vitreous" and "resinous".	Paris, France
267 YBN [1733 AD]	1943) The classification of semi-metals (now called metalloids) is invented by Georg Brandt, in which he includes the elements arsenic, bismuth, antimony, mercury, and zinc.	Stockholm, Sweden (presumably)
265 YBN [1735 AD]	1936) The first clock that can keep accurate time at sea.	London, England
265 YBN [1735 AD]	1996) Life of Earth, including the human species, is systematically categorized by Carolus Linnaeus (lin Aus).	Netherlands
264 YBN [1736 AD]	1923) Substances that can conduct a flow of electricity are called "conductors" and substances that cannot carry the electric fluid are called "insulators" by John Théophile Desaguliers {DAZaGjUlEA?}.	London, England
264 YBN [1736 AD]	1966) That the Earth is an oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles) is verified by Pierre de Maupertuis (moPARTUE).	Lapland
262 YBN [1738 AD]	1971) The kinetic theory of gases and heat by Daniel Bernoulli (BRnULE). Bernoulli demonstrates that the impact of molecules on a surface would explain pressure and that, assuming the constant, random motion of molecules, pressure and motion increase with temperature.	Basel, Switzerland (presumably)| (published in ) Strasbourg
261 YBN [1739 AD]	1912) Using sulfur dioxide (a colorless, extremely irritating gas or liquid, SO2) to protect plants from weevils and insects is suggested.	Cambridge, England
260 YBN [1740 AD]	2007) The first age estimate for the universe to go beyond the 6,000 year limit apparently set by the Book of Genesis.	Montbard, France
260 YBN [1740 AD]	2019) That phosphorus gains weight when burned (now known as oxidation) is found by Andreas Marggraf (MoRKGroF). This conflicts with the phlogistan theory of Stahl.	Berlin, Germany (presumably)
260 YBN [1740 AD]	2067) Parthenogenesis (reproduction without fertilization) is conclusively proven; by Charles Bonnet (BOnA) in female aphids.	Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably)
259 YBN [1741 AD]	1911) Air filtering is described.	Cambridge, England
258 YBN [1742 AD]	1975) The Celsius (or centigrade) temperature scale is invented by Anders Celsius (SeLSEuS) divides the freezing and boiling point of water into 100 degrees.	Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)
257 YBN [1743 AD]	1976) The first philosophical society in America, "the American Philosophical Society" is formed by Benjamin Franklin.	Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English Colonies) USA
256 YBN [1744 AD]	2059) Partial differential equations are invented. A partial derivative is used when a function is expressed in terms of more than one variable.	Paris, France (presumably)
256 YBN [1744 AD]	2121) An electric spark is used to ignite a flammable liquid; ether.
255 YBN [03/27/1745 AD]	1244) An electric spark ignites black powder.	England
255 YBN [11/04/1745 AD]	1972) The storage of electricity. The first electric memory and capacitor (commonly called the Leyden jar). Georg Bose, Ewald von Kleist (KlIST), and Peter van Musschenbroek somewhat independently invent the Leyden jar). A Leyden jar is a glass bottle holding water that can store electricity and give the holder of the bottle a large electric shock.	(University of Wittenburg) Wittenburg, Germany(was for von Kleist: Pomerania?, Prussia) (coast of Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland)
255 YBN [1745 AD]	2966) An electrostatic motor by Andrew Gordon. A clapper swings back and forth between two bells of oppositely charged glasses, causing a ring on contact with each, until the charge is gone.	(University of Erfurt) Erfurt, Germany
254 YBN [1746 AD]	2022) Zinc is isolated by Andreas Sigismunf Marggraf (MoRKGroF).	Berlin, Germany (presumably)
254 YBN [1746 AD]	2953) The theory that electricity is made of two streams of electrical fluid that move in opposite directions by French clergyman, and experimental physicist Jean-Antoine Nollet.	Paris, France (presumably)
254 YBN [1746 AD]	2968) That electricity in an electrostatic generator comes from the ground and not the sphere is proven by English physician and scientist William Watson.	London, England
254 YBN [1746 AD]	2969) The capacity of the Leyden jar is increased by coating the inside and outside with lead foil.	London, England
253 YBN [07/11/1747 AD]	1981) The theory that electricity is a single fluid, and that lightning is electricity by Benjamin Franklin.	Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA (letter to London, England)
253 YBN [1747 AD]	2055) Citris fruits are proven to cure scurvy in one of the earliest clinical experiments by James Lind.	England
253 YBN [1747 AD]	3452) The basis of refrigeration is understood. George Richman and independently William Cullen describe that evaporating liquids produces cold.	(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg, Russia
252 YBN [01/01/1748 AD]	1960) The first device to measure the quantity of light.	??, France (presumably)
252 YBN [02/14/1748 AD]	1932) The phenomenon of "nutation", that the apparent declination of some stars changes annually because of the movement of the nodes of the Moon's orbit around the Earth.	Kew, England
252 YBN [1748 AD]	2954) Osmosis is described (the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or some other solvent through a semipermeable membrane).	Paris, France (presumably)
252 YBN [1748 AD]	4537) That irregularities in the motions of satellites occur because the bodies they orbit are not perfectly spherical is recognized.	Berlin, Germany
251 YBN [04/29/1749 AD]	2971) A modern capacitor (a Franklin pane): a glass with metal foil coated on both sides is invented by Benjamin Franklin. Franklin also proves that the electric charge is stored in the glass of a Leyden jar and not in the metal coatings, by showing that when a capacitor has been charged, the metallic coatings can be exchanged for fresh ones and the electric charge of the capacitor still remains. Franklin also invents the first electrostatic battery by connecting Leyden jars by metal in parallel.	Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English Colonies) USA
251 YBN [1749 AD]	1997) The binomial naming system; all organisms are classified by genus and species by Linnaeus.	Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)
250 YBN [1750 AD]	2025) The theory that the Sun is not the center of the universe, and that the Milky Way is flattened.
249 YBN [1751 AD]	2047) Diderot's (DEDrO) "Encyclopédie", a twenty-eight volume encyclopedia.	Paris, France
249 YBN [1751 AD]	2070) The element nickel.
248 YBN [01/03/1752 AD]	2009) The different spectra of an alcohol flame colored by various salts is described.	Edinburgh, Scotland
248 YBN [02/20/1752 AD]	2976) A spark is passed through a vacuum tube by William Watson. This, although unknown at the time, produces X-Ray light.	London, England
248 YBN [1752 AD]	1922) Digestion of food is proven to be chemical and not mechanical by putting food in small metal cylinders which are then regurgitated by birds with partially digested food.	Paris, France (presumably)
248 YBN [1752 AD]	1983) Lightning is proven to be electricity by Benjamin Franklin by charging a Leyden jar with electricity from the sky using a kite.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (presumably)
247 YBN [12/??/1753 AD]	2972) Electrostatic induction is identified: that an electrified object can induce an opposite charge in a second object just by being close.	London, England
247 YBN [1753 AD]	2957) That air can hold electricity is discovered.	London, England
245 YBN [01/25/1755 AD]	1370) Moscow State University the oldest and largest university in Russia is founded at the suggestion of Russian chemist Michail Lomonosov.	Moscow, Russia
245 YBN [06/05/1755 AD]	2089) Carbon dioxide is isolated by Joseph Black. Black finds that magnesia alba (magnesium carbonate) like chalk (calcium carbonate) produces a gas when mixed with acids. This gas Black calls "fixed air". Black finds that the products magnesia usta (now known as magnesium oxide), like quicklime (calcium oxide), do not produce gas with acids. Black hypothesizes that the weight lost is due to the gas generated, and finds that the alba can be produced again with the same weight by adding a solution of potash (potassium carbonate) to the magnesia usta; showing that the alba and usta can be converted into each other.	Edinburgh, Scotland
245 YBN [1755 AD]	2072) The nebular hypothesis, that the star system formed as a result of the gravitational interaction of atoms, that the Milky Way is a lens shaped collection of stars, and that other such "island universes" exist.	Königsberg, Germany
243 YBN [1757 AD]	2697) The method of "least squares": a method for estimating a value based on the errors in observations, in particular, the line (in other words function) that minimizes the sum of the squared distances from the line to each observation. This is used to determine the orbit of a planet from only three observations of its position.	Rome?, Italy
242 YBN [1758 AD]	3649) The first color specification based on the painters' three primary colors (red, yellow, and blue).	(lecture at U of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
241 YBN [1759 AD]	2141) That specialized organs arise out of unspecialized tissue in the embryo is introduced and will replace the theory that a body is preformed in the egg or sperm.	Halle, Germany
241 YBN [1759 AD]	3011) The electrical inverse distance squared law. The theory that electrical attraction and repulsion between charged bodies decreases by the inverse of the distance between them squared.	St. Petersberg, Russia
240 YBN [1760 AD]	2074) Locating the center of an earthquake by recording the time when the earthquake is felt in different places is described.	Cambridge, England
240 YBN [1760 AD]	2122) Electrolysis. Molecules are split using electricity by Giovanni Beccaria. Water is separated into hydrogen and oxygen gases using electricity. Beccaria passes sparks through water and sees bubbles but does not recognize that the gases produced are the components of water instead thinking that the bubbles are from evaporation.	Turin, Italy
239 YBN [1761 AD]	2028) That Venus has an atmosphere is observed during a transit of Venus across the Sun.	Saint Petersburg, Russia
237 YBN [1763 AD]	2043) Lacaille (LoKoYu) publishes a star catalog of nearly 10,000 southern hemisphere stars. Lacaille names 14 new southern constellations after astronomical instruments.	Paris, France (presumably)
237 YBN [1763 AD]	2080) That valleys are formed by streams that run through them is understood. That all rocks are not sedimentary is proven because basalt is shown to be formed by volcanoes (has an igneous origin).	France
236 YBN [05/08/1764 AD]	6589) A globular cluster is recognized as a group of stars by Charles Messier (meSYA).	Paris, France
236 YBN [1764 AD]	2091) The concept of "latent heat", the quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its temperature.	Glasgow, Scotland
234 YBN [05/29/1766 AD]	2113) Hydrogen gas is isolated by Henry Cavendish. Cavendish produces "inflammable air" (hydrogen) by dissolving metals in acids, and "fixed air" (carbon dioxide) by dissolving alkalies (strong bases in the periodic table column with lithium, sodium, and potassium) in acids, and he collects these and other gases in bottles inverted over water or mercury.	London, England
232 YBN [1768 AD]	2093) The hyperbolic trigonometric functions (sinh, cosh, etc.). Just as the ordinary sine and cosine functions trace (or parameterize) a circle, so the sinh and cosh parameterize a hyperbola).	Berlin, Germany
232 YBN [1768 AD]	2667) The first Encyclopaedia Britannica.	Edinburgh, Scotland
232 YBN [1768 AD]	4482) That light particles do not appear to interfere or collide with each other is recognized.	London, England
231 YBN [1769 AD]	1206) The first self-propelled vehicle. A steam-engine powered automobile by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot.	England
231 YBN [1769 AD]	2069) The theory that fossils that resemble no living creature may have been animals that went extinct, and the first use of the word "evolution" in a biological context.	Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably)
231 YBN [1769 AD]	2130) A machine that spins thread by mechanically reproducing the motions made by the human hand.
229 YBN [1771 AD]	2118) The relation between quantity and electric potential is recognized by Henry Cavendish, in modern form, Q=CV (where Q is quantity of charge, C is a constant called capacity, and V is electric potential). The first measurement of electrical "capacity".	London, England
228 YBN [06/04/1772 AD]	2138) Carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in water by Joseph Priestley which is the beginning of the soda-water industry.	Leeds, England
228 YBN [06/04/1772 AD]	6495) Five new gases are identified and isolated by Joseph Priestley: carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), nitric dioxide (NO2), Nitrous oxide (N2O), and hydrogen chloride (HCl). Before this there are only 3 known gases: air, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Priestley will go on to isolate and identify ten gases in all, most of them previously unknown. Priestley collects gas over mercury and therefore is able to isolate gases that cannot be collected over water because they are soluble in water.	Leeds, England (does not move to Calne until 1773)
228 YBN [11/01/1772 AD]	2225) The burning of sulfur (like phosphorus) is shown to result in the sulfur gaining weight, which conflicts with the phlogiston theory.	Paris, France (presumably)
228 YBN [1772 AD]	2076) The theory that since light particles are subject to the force of gravity, gravity must change the speed of light, and that a mass may be so large that light particles cannot escape it by John Michell (MicL). Michell also theorizes that the force that causes light to be emitted from luminous bodies is much higher than the force of gravity at the surface of the Sun.	Thornhill, Yorkshire, England
228 YBN [1772 AD]	2140) The mass of a light particle is measured by John Michell to be 18 x 10-8 parts of a grain.	Leeds, England
228 YBN [1772 AD]	2162) Lagrangian points are identified, points in space at which a small body will remain approximately at rest relative to two larger mass bodies (because the gravitational influence of both is equal in opposite directions).	Berlin, Germany
228 YBN [1772 AD]	2172) The inverse square law of gravitation is applied to chemical forces of attraction.	Dijon, France
228 YBN [1772 AD]	2215) That diamonds are made of carbon and cannot burn in the absence of air is known by Lavoisier (loVWoZYA).	Paris, France (presumably)
228 YBN [1772 AD]	2285) Nitrogen gas is isolated by Daniel Rutherford. In Rutherford's experiment a mouse lives in a closed container until it dies (of suffocation). The remaining air is then passed through a strong alkali (caustic potash) which absorbs the fixed air (carbon dioxide). The remaining air, which does not support respiration or combustion, is nitrogen.	Edinburgh, Scotland
226 YBN [08/01/1774 AD]	2139) Oxygen gas is isolated independently by Joseph Priestley and Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) by collecting the gas emitted by heating mercury oxide. Priestley collects oxygen ("which he calls dephlogisticated air") by melting mercuric oxide (red calx of mercury) (in an evacuated container) with a lens. Mercury when heated in air will form a brick-red calx now called mercuric oxide. Priestly heats some of this calx in an (evacuated?) test tube with a lens. These focus (light particles) on the calx and convert the substance back into liquid mercury again which appears as shining globules in the upper portion of the test tube. In addition a gas is given off with interesting properties. This gas is colorless, odorless and tasteless. Priestley finds that this new gas is "between five and six times as good as the best common air" in supporting combustion. Scheele, who publishes after Priestley isolates Oxygen by a variety of methods: by heating a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acid in a retort and collecting the gas in a bladder attached to the neck, by heating mercuric oxide (Priestley's method), and from mixtures of manganese dioxide and sulfuric and phosphoric acids.	Calne, England
226 YBN [11/26/1774 AD]	6498) Sulfur dioxide gas (SO2), (a heavy, colorless, poisonous gas) is identified and isolated by Joseph Priestley.	Calne, England
226 YBN [1774 AD]	2111) The first catalog of Messier objects, celestial objects which include nebulae and star clusters.	Paris, France (presumably)
226 YBN [1774 AD]	2129) The average density of Earth is measured as 4.5 times the density of water by using a pendulum.	Schiehallion Mountain, North Perthshireit, Scotland
226 YBN [1774 AD]	2200) The element chlorine is isolated, as a gas, by Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) using hydrochloric acid on manganese dioxide.	Uppsala, Sweden
226 YBN [1774 AD]	2216) Combustion is shown to be a reaction with a gas in the air (later named oxygen) by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier {loVWoZYA}. Lavoisier shows how material in the air combines with metals when heated, which will end the phlogiston theory of combustion, and demonstrates the conservation of mass.	Paris, France (presumably)
226 YBN [1774 AD]	2258) The element manganese.	Uppsala, Sweden
226 YBN [1774 AD]	2664) The earliest telegraph: each letter has a wire, and letters on pith balls (the sponge-like central cylinder of a flower stem) are displayed when any wire is charged.	Switzerland (presumably)
226 YBN [1774 AD]	6497) Ammonia gas (NH3) is identified and isolated by Priestley.	Calne, England
225 YBN [06/10/1775 AD]	2246) The electrophorus, the first induction based electrostatic generator is invented by Volta.	Como, Italy
225 YBN [1775 AD]	2143) The classification of substances based on chemical characterists and a table of "affinities" based on chemicals that react with each other.	Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)
223 YBN [1777 AD]	2165) A torsion balance is invented by Charles Coulomb: a device that measures a quantity of force by the amount of twist the force produces on a suspended thread or wire.	Paris?, France
223 YBN [1777 AD]	2201) Eleven new acids are identified (including citric and lactic), in addition to the identification of casein, aldehyde, and glycerol by Karl Scheele (sAlu). Scheele also describes the effect of light on silver compounds, which 50 years later will be used in the development of photography.	(starts phramacy position in 1777 in) Uppsala, Sweden
222 YBN [1778 AD]	1209) A threshing machine (or thresher), a farm machine for separating wheat, peas, beans, and other small grain and seed crops from their straw and chaff (which are indigestible materials, like the husks that enclose grains on cereal plants).	Houston Mill, near Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland
222 YBN [1778 AD]	2248) Methane gas is discovered and isolated by Alessandro Volta (VOLTo). Volta distinguishes methane from hydrogen by methane's different-color flame, its slower rate of combustion, and the larger volume of air and larger electric spark required for detonation.	Como, Italy
221 YBN [1779 AD]	2106) That actual contact between egg and semen is needed for the development of a new animal is proven.	Pavia, Italy (presumably)
221 YBN [1779 AD]	2112) That plants take in carbon dioxide only in the light, and in the dark, plants, like animals, give off carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen is proven by Jan Ingenhousz {iNGeNHoUZ}.	London, England
220 YBN [1780 AD]	2053) The first modern geological map.	France
220 YBN [1780 AD]	2274) The theory that the quantity of heat required to decompose a compound into its elements is equal to the heat emitted when that compound is formed from its elements.	Paris, France (presumably)
219 YBN [03/13/1781 AD]	2840) Planet Uranus is identified by William Herschel. This is the first new planet to be discovered since prehistoric times.	Bath, England
219 YBN [1781 AD]	2147) The sun-and-planet gear; converts reciprocating (back and forth) motion into a rotary motion.	Birmingham, England (presumably)
219 YBN [1781 AD]	2208) That the shape of crystals as shown by the way they always break into the same shapes (for example rhombohedral) implies their chemical composition is understood.	Paris, France (presumably)
219 YBN [1781 AD]	2263) The element molybdenum.	Uppsala, Sweden (presumably)
218 YBN [11/??/1782 AD]	2348) Periodic variations in the intensity of the light from variable stars is explained as the star being eclipsed by a darker companion body.	York Minster, England
218 YBN [1782 AD]	2190) The element tellurium.	Transylvania, Romania (was Hungary at time)
218 YBN [1782 AD]	2202) Three highly poisonous gases are prepared by Karl Scheele (sAlu): hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen cyanide.	Köping, Sweden (presumably)
218 YBN [1782 AD]	2220) The theory that respiration is a combustion process that enables animals to maintain their body temperature above the temperature of their surroundings, and accounts for animal heat by Lavoisier (loVWoZYA).	Paris, France (presumably)
218 YBN [1782 AD]	3387) The first automated mill (a building equipped with machinery for grinding grain into flour and other cereal products).	Red Clay Creek, Delaware, USA
218 YBN [1782 AD]	6608) The first sewer to be installed under the streets. A sewer is a drain or pipe, especially one that is underground, used to carry away surface water or sewage.	New York City, New York, USA
217 YBN [02/01/1783 AD]	2183) The motion of the Sun relative to the other stars is recognized by William Herschel. Herschel uses the motion of other stars to recognize that the Sun is moving towards the constellation Hercules. Herschel notes the proper motions of seven bright stars and shows that their movement seems to converge on a fixed point, which he interprets correctly as the point the sun is moving toward.	Datchet, near Winsor, England|(Slough, England)
217 YBN [06/04/1783 AD]	2192) The hot air balloon by the Montgolfier brothers.	Annonay, France
217 YBN [07/15/1783 AD]	2206) A steam engine boat. Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans travels upstream on the Saône River near Lyon, France in the first successful steamboat.	Saône River, near Lyon, France
217 YBN [08/27/1783 AD]	2264) The hydrogen gas balloon.	Paris, France (presumably)
217 YBN [11/21/1783 AD]	2194) Human flight by balloon. The first untethered balloon flight with a human passenger is made in Paris.	Paris, France
217 YBN [1783 AD]	2114) The density of gases is measured by Henry Cavendish, who measures the weight of particular volumes of gas.	London, England
217 YBN [1783 AD]	2311) A parachute is demonstrated.	?, France
217 YBN [1783 AD]	2320) The element tungsten.	Vergara, Spain
216 YBN [01/15/1784 AD]	2115) Water is shown to be a compound, not an element, by Henry Cavendish. The fusion of molecules using electricity. Cavendish shows that water is produced by burning hydrogen gas in oxygen gas. In this way water is shown to be a combination of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, and not an element as was thought for centuries.	London, England
216 YBN [1784 AD]	2180) That some nebulae contain stars is observed by William Herschel. Herschel also concludes that these nebulae must be very large and distant collections of stars.	Datchet, England
216 YBN [1784 AD]	2259) The first gas is liquefied, sulfur dioxide.	(École du génie) Angers, France
215 YBN [02/17/1785 AD]	3463) The earliest "diffraction" grating. David Rittenhouse constructs a diffraction grating using hair.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
215 YBN [03/07/1785 AD]	2083) The "uniformitarian principle": that all geologic phenomena on the Earth can be explained by observable processes, and that these processes have operated with general uniformity over immensely long periods of time.	Edinburgh, Scotland
215 YBN [04/??/1785 AD]	2184) A star catalog with 1000 new "nebulae" (now called galaxies) and star clusters by William Herschel which enlarges the map of the known universe.	Datchet, England
215 YBN [06/02/1785 AD]	2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of gases, and not a single element by Henry Cavendish. Cavendish shows, by sparking air to make nitric acid, that air is a mixture of gases, not a single element as was thought. Cavendish is the first to recognize that air is composed of around 4 parts nitrogen to 1 part oxygen.	London, England
215 YBN [1785 AD]	2107) The first artificial insemination (impregnating an organism by injecting semen into the vagina).	Pavia, Italy (presumably)
215 YBN [1785 AD]	2168) Electric and magnetic attraction and repulsion are proven to be both proportional to amount of charge and inversely proportional to distance squared by Charles Coulomb (KUlOM). This will eventually lead to the famous equation now called Coulomb's law which is very similar to Newton's law for gravitation but with charge replacing mass and a different constant: F=kq1q2/r^2	Paris?, France (presumably)
215 YBN [1785 AD]	2271) That ammonia is a composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, and that chlorine gas in a solution of alkali can be used as a bleach is shown.	Paris, France (presumably)
213 YBN [07/28/1787 AD]	6595) The earliest iron ship.	Birmingham, England
213 YBN [08/27/1787 AD]	2265) That volume and temperature of a gas are inversely related is known by Jacques Alexandre César Charles (soRL) . Charles (soRL) states that the volume of a fixed quantity of gas at constant pressure is inversely proportional to its temperature (Charles' law) and finds that for each degree Centigrade rise in temperature, the volume of a gas expands by 1/273 of its volume at 0 degrees which implies that at a temperature of -273˚ Celsius the volume of a gas would reach 0, and that there can be no lower temperature.	Paris, France (presumably)
213 YBN [1787 AD]	2171) A standard method of chemical nomenclature, in which every substance has a name based on the elements it is composed of, is established.	Paris, France (presumably)
213 YBN [1787 AD]	2178) Two moons of Uranus are identified by William Herschel.	Old Windsor, England (presumably)
211 YBN [08/28/1789 AD]	2181) William Herschel constructs a 1.2 meter (4 foot) mirror telescope and identifies two new satellites of Saturn, Enceladus and Mimas for a total of 7 moons for Saturn.	Slough, England
211 YBN [1789 AD]	2222) Light is listed as the most simple element on the first list of the known elements; by Lavoisier.	Paris, France (presumably)
211 YBN [1789 AD]	2230) The element Uranium.	Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany (presumably)
211 YBN [1789 AD]	2231) The element Zirconium.	Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany (presumably)
210 YBN [1790 AD]	2191) Stone age tools and fossilized bones are found.	Hoxne, Suffolk, England
210 YBN [1790 AD]	2198) Salt (sodium chloride) is converted into soda ash (sodium carbonate).	Paris, France
210 YBN [1790 AD]	3271) A sewing machine.	England
209 YBN [1791 AD]	2175) Remote neuron activation (or remote neuron writing) by Luigi Galvani. A muscle is contracted remotely by using a remote electric spark while metal is connected to the nerve.	Bologna, Italy
209 YBN [1791 AD]	2295) That all objects emit heat and that heat always moves from a hot body to a cold body is known.
209 YBN [1791 AD]	2342) The element titanium.	Cornwall, England
209 YBN [1791 AD]	2343) That acids and bases neutralize each other in fixed proportions is shown. That it takes 615 parts by weight of magnesia (MgO) to neutralize 1000 parts by weight of sulfuric acid is determined.	?, Germany
209 YBN [1791 AD]	3380) The first flammable gas engine design.	?, England
208 YBN [04/01/1792 AD]	2249) That electric current comes from the moist contact of two different metals is shown by Volta (VOLTo).	Pavia, Italy
208 YBN [1792 AD]	2312) Coal gas is used to light a house. Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide emitted when coal is heated in the absence of air.	Redruth, Cornwall, England
207 YBN [04/??/1793 AD]	2359) The cotton gin makes separating cotton fibers from their seeds easier.	Mulberry Grove, Georgia (presumably)
207 YBN [1793 AD]	2291) Insect assisted fertilization of flowers is recognized.	Spandau, Germany
207 YBN [1793 AD]	2372) That the amount of water vapor the air can hold rises with temperature is shown by John Dalton.	Manchester, England
206 YBN [08/15/1794 AD]	1895) Long distance communication over an optical telegraph with towers spaced 8-16 km (5-10 miles) apart in France.	France
206 YBN [1794 AD]	2085) The theory of natural selection is explained by James Hutton: that species less adapted are more likely to die while those better adapted will continue and multiply.	Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)
206 YBN [1794 AD]	2336) Yttrium {iTrEuM}, the first rare earth element.	(was Åbo is now)Turku, Finland
206 YBN [1794 AD]	3376) The first gas combustion direct-acting engine with cylinder and piston is designed.	?, England
204 YBN [07/01/1796 AD]	2280) Immunity by vaccination is proven by Edward Jenner who confirms that having cow pox disease provides immunity from the more severe small pox disease.	Berkeley, England (presumably)
204 YBN [1796 AD]	2277) Theo theory that the solar system formed by cooling and contracting of a gaseous nebula by Laplace.	Paris, France (presumably)
204 YBN [1796 AD]	2330) That different parts of the brain control different parts of the body is understood.	Vienna, Germany
204 YBN [1796 AD]	2339) That diamond is made only of carbon is proven by measuring the amount of carbon dioxide produced by burning the diamond.	London, England (presumably)
203 YBN [1797 AD]	2338) Marble is produced by melting and quickly cooling limestone (calcium carbonate) by James Hall.
203 YBN [1797 AD]	2344) The element chromium.	Paris, France
202 YBN [1798 AD]	2117) The gravitational constant, the mass, and the density of the Earth are measured by Henry Cavendish using a torsion balance.	London, England
202 YBN [1798 AD]	2303) The quantity of heat produced by a given quantity of mechanical energy is measured.	Bavaria, Germany (presumably)
202 YBN [1798 AD]	2345) The element beryllium {Be-rilE-uM}.	Paris, France
201 YBN [1799 AD]	2283) The metric system.	France
201 YBN [1799 AD]	2315) Elements are shown to combine in definite proportions by Joseph Proust (PrUST).	Segovia, Spain
200 YBN [03/20/1800 AD]	2250) The electric battery (or voltaic pile) is invented. The "voltaic pile": disks of silver and zinc plates in contact are separated by a moist pad, and then stacked to produce a large electric force when opposite ends are connected with a conductor. This battery provides a continuous source of electrical current.	Pavia, Italy
200 YBN [03/27/1800 AD]	2179) Invisible light is recognized by William Herschel, who finds that an invisible portion of the spectrum of light beyond the color red (later named infrared) heats up a thermometer more than any other color.	Slough, England
200 YBN [05/02/1800 AD]	2307) That Hydrogen and Oxygen gas are separated from water using electricity (using a voltaic pile) is recognized. This is the reverse of the find of Cavendish that hydrogen and oxygen gas are united by electricity to form water.	London, England (presumably)
200 YBN [06/27/1800 AD]	3254) The change in temperature caused by compressing and expanding air is measured by Dalton.	Manchester, England
200 YBN [06/??/1800 AD]	3597) That electricity in water mixed with litmus is colored blue around the silver electrode and red around the zinc electrode is found. This is the basis of the first electric dot printer. Litmus is a material obtained from certain lichens that turns blue in in alkaline solution and red in acid solution.	(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich) Woolwich, England
200 YBN [09/17/1800 AD]	2436) Hydrogen and oxygen gas are collected separately from the electrolysis of water by Johann Wilhelm Ritter.	Jena, Germany (presumably)
200 YBN [11/??/1800 AD]	2437) Electroplating is discovered by Johann Wilhelm Ritter, who shows that by passing current through a solution of copper sulfate that metallic copper can be made to cover (or plate) a conductive object that is used as an electrode.	Jena, Germany (presumably)
200 YBN [1800 AD]	3233) Mercury fulminates are discovered: explosive compounds derived from fulminic acid.	London, England (presumably)
199 YBN [01/01/1801 AD]	2261) The first known asteroid (and minor planet), Ceres {SErEZ}, is recognized by Giuseppe Piazzi (PYoTSE).	Palermo, Sicily
199 YBN [02/22/1801 AD]	2167) The invisible light, ultra-violet light is discovered by Johann Ritter, who observes that an invisible part of the spectrum of light beyond the violet causes a silver chloride chemical reaction more strongly than any other part of the spectrum.	Jena, Germany (presumably)
199 YBN [11/12/1801 AD]	2405) The frequencies and wavelengths (or particle intervals) of light are determined by Thomas Young. Young also creates the theory of light interference: that two light waves can add to or cancel each other out, similar to the way two sound waves can add to or cancel each other out to produce silence. But the phenomenon called interference can be explained as particle reflection similar to the way diffraction is. Young also recognizes that only three colors in different proportions are needed to see any other color. The first glass diffraction gratings are in use.	London, England
199 YBN [12/10/1801 AD]	2508) The first oxygen-hydrogen torch; by US chemist Robert Hare. The first gas torch welding Hare builds the first oxygen-hydrogen torch by making a beer keg a two compartment container for hydrogen and oxygen gas. Hare works a sheet of tin into two tubes (which are used as the torch handle). This blowpipe is the ancestor of all welding torches.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
199 YBN [1801 AD]	2238) The classification of invetebrates.	Paris, France (presumably)
199 YBN [1801 AD]	2349) The element vanadium {VunADEuM}.	Mexico City, Mexico (presumably)
199 YBN [1801 AD]	2350) The element niobium {nIOBEuM}.
199 YBN [1801 AD]	2374) The law of partial pressures by Dalton: that each component of a mixture of gases exerts the same pressure that it would if it alone occupied the whole volume of the mixture, at the same temperature.	Manchester, England
198 YBN [03/??/1802 AD]	2332) The asteroid (and minor planet) Pallas {PaLuS} is recognized.	Bremen, Germany
198 YBN [1802 AD]	2239) The word "biology".	Paris, France (presumably)
198 YBN [1802 AD]	2365) Spectral lines are identified by William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) when he notices dark lines in the spectrum of a ray of light from the Sun.	London, England
198 YBN [1802 AD]	2377) The element tantalum.	Uppsala, Sweden
198 YBN [1802 AD]	2439) The first dry electric battery; by Johann Ritter.	Gotha, Germany
198 YBN [1802 AD]	2464) That different gases all expand by equal amounts with rise in temperature is discovered by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK).	Arcueil, France (presumably)
198 YBN [1802 AD]	6609) The first water distribution system of a city; Philadelphia.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
197 YBN [10/21/1803 AD]	2375) That atoms of different elements vary in size and mass is shown, and the first table of elements by atomic mass is created by John Dalton. Dalton assigns to Hydrogen a value of 1.	Manchester, England
197 YBN [1803 AD]	2235) The element cerium {SEREuM}; the first lanthanide element to be discovered. The lanthanides are a series of 15 naturally occurring metallic elements from atomic number 57 (lanthanum) through 71 (lutetium). They are grouped apart from the rest of the elements in the periodic table because they all behave in a similar way in chemical reactions.	Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany (presumably)
197 YBN [1803 AD]	2400) The steam engine railway train by Richard Trevithick (Tre-Vi-tiK).	South Wales, England
196 YBN [12/20/1804 AD]	6506) The size of an atom is estimated to be around a nanometer by Thomas Young.	London, England (presumably)
196 YBN [1804 AD]	2362) The element platinum.	London, England
196 YBN [1804 AD]	2363) The element palladium {PulADEuM}.	London, England
196 YBN [1804 AD]	2417) That the Earth's magnetic field extends into the atmosphere but does not vary with altitude is shown.	Paris, France (presumably)
196 YBN [1804 AD]	2440) Morphine is isolated from opium, the first alkaloid to be obtained in pure form.	{France and}Paderborn, Germany
196 YBN [1804 AD]	6519) There are 1 billion humans on Earth.
195 YBN [1805 AD]	2364) The element rhodium {rODEuM}.	London, England
195 YBN [1805 AD]	3223) The first percussion ignition gun. Percussion ignition will replace ignition by flint spark.	Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland (presumably)
195 YBN [1805 AD]	6249) The first refrigeration machine, a machine that compresses and condenses a recycled gas to lower the temperature of water.	Philadelphia, PA, USA
194 YBN [02/15/1806 AD]	6600) Chlorine gas is liquefied.	(Devonshire Street, Portland Place) London, England
194 YBN [11/20/1806 AD]	2474) The theory that elements are held together by electrical energy, that chemical combination occurs between substances of opposite charge, and that electricity is the most likely method to decompose all substances to their elements by Humphry Davy.	London, England
194 YBN [1806 AD]	2346) Asparagine {e-SPAR-e-JEN}, the first amino acid, is isolated, by Louis Vauquelin (VoKloN).	Paris, France
193 YBN [03/29/1807 AD]	2333) The asteroid Vesta is observed.	Bremen, Germany
193 YBN [03/??/1807 AD]	2407) The quantity mv2 (vis-visa) is called "energy".	London, England
193 YBN [10/06/1807 AD]	2476) The element potassium {PuTaSEuM}.	London, England
193 YBN [10/13/1807 AD]	2477) The element sodium.	London, England
193 YBN [1807 AD]	2313) Streets are lit with gas lighting; in London.	London, England
193 YBN [1807 AD]	2380) "Fourier's theorem": that any periodic oscillation can be reduced to a sum of simple trigonometric (sine, or cosine, etc.) wave motions.	Grenoble, France
192 YBN [06/21/1808 AD]	2465) The element boron.	Paris, France (presumably)
192 YBN [1808 AD]	2428) The phenomenon of light "polarization" is described by Étienne Louis Malus (molYUS). Malus finds that an image of sun light reflected from a window that passes through Iceland spar (calcite) is not double refracted finding that only one image can be seen. The phenomenon of polarization is most likely the result of light rays that are filtered into a set of parallel planes as a result of reflection off of regularly spaced structures. So instead of being polarized, light is "planarized", and polarization is a form of planar filtration.	Paris, France
192 YBN [1808 AD]	2478) The elements barium, strontium {STronsEuM or STroNTEuM}, calcium and magnesium.	London, England
191 YBN [11/15/1809 AD]	6606) Electric arc welding and an electric arc furnace: a metal (aluminum) is melted using electricity by Humphry Davy.	London, England
191 YBN [1809 AD]	2302) The method of preserving food for several years by heating and sealing it in an air-tight container is discovered.	Paris, France (presumably)
191 YBN [1809 AD]	2466) Gases are shown to combine in small whole number ratios by volume and not by mass (as long as temperature and pressure are constant) by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK). For example, two parts of hydrogen unite with one part nitrogen to form ammonia.	Paris, France (presumably)
191 YBN [1809 AD]	2481) The first electric light; the arc lamp by Humphry Davy.	London, England
190 YBN [1810 AD]	2480) Chlorine is shown to be an element and shown to support combustion as oxygen does by Humphry Davy who uses a powerful current from a voltaic pile to decompose one of the strongest acids known, muriatic (now called hydrochloric) acid into hydrogen and chlorine gas. In doing this Davy also shows that hydrogen is characteristic of acids, not oxygen, as Lavoisier had thought.	London, England
189 YBN [1811 AD]	2334) That the tail of a comet always points away from the Sun because of pressure from Sun light is understood.	Bremen, Germany
189 YBN [1811 AD]	2432) The concept of molecules, and the method to determine correct atomic mass and molecular formula by Amedeo Avogadro (oVOGoDrO). Avogadro creates the concept of a molecule and distinguishes between atoms and molecules. By presuming that the distance between molecules does not vary, Avogadro explains that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure must contain the same number of molecules. Using this principle Avogadro correctly describes the molecular formula for water, ammonia, carbon monoxide and other compounds.	Vercelli, Italy
189 YBN [1811 AD]	2441) The element iodine.	Dijon, France
189 YBN [1811 AD]	2564) That fats are combinations of glycerol and fatty acids is recognized.	Paris, France (presumably)
188 YBN [1812 AD]	2347) Glucose is isolated.	St Petersburg?, Russia?
187 YBN [1813 AD]	2492) Elements are represented with one or two letters.	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
187 YBN [1813 AD]	2503) The theory that all compounds are composed of 2 electrically opposite parts.	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
186 YBN [1814 AD]	2571) The spectroscope is invented by Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR or HOFR?). Using the spectroscope Fraunhofer recognizes that substances emit specific spectral lines, that the spectrum of planet Venus has the same absorption lines as the Sun, and that the spectrum of other stars have absorption lines that are different from those of the Sun.	Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany
185 YBN [11/??/1815 AD]	2544) The theory that all atomic masses are multiples of the atomic mass of hydrogen by William Prout. Many atomic masses are shown to not be multiples of hydrogen but will be shown later to be from isotopes which vary in mass.	London, England (presumably)
185 YBN [1815 AD]	2419) Optical isomers are discovered: chemically identical molecules that rotate polarized light in different directions because of differences in their shape.	Paris, France (presumably)
185 YBN [1815 AD]	2469) Chemical radicals are recognized by Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK): a group of atoms that take part in most chemical reactions as a single unit, usually passing from one compound to another but incapable of existing freely for a long time.	Paris, France (presumably)
185 YBN [1815 AD]	3224) The percussion cap, a cone of metal that contains fulminate of mercury which explodes when struck.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA (presumably)
184 YBN [04/??/1816 AD]	2351) Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (nYePS) creates a photograph on paper sensitized with silver chloride which he can only fix partially with nitric acid.	Chalon-sur-Saône, France
184 YBN [1816 AD]	2384) That strata layers can be recognized by the kinds of fossils in them is understood.
183 YBN [01/12/1817 AD]	2408) The theory that light is a transverse wave (oscillates at a right angle to the direction of travel) in an aether medium by Thomas Young. Young then uses this theory to explain light polarization as the alignment of light waves oscillating in the same plane. But polarization can also be explained as "planarization", in which light is filtered into parallel planes when reflected.	London, England
183 YBN [1817 AD]	2431) The element cadmium.	Göttingen, Germany
183 YBN [1817 AD]	2493) The element selenium.	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
183 YBN [1817 AD]	2600) The theory that chemicals contain light and the systemization of chemistry by Leopold Gmelin (GumAliN).	Heidelberg, Germany
183 YBN [1817 AD]	2783) The three embryonic layers of animals are described.	Carnikava (near Riga), Latvia
183 YBN [1817 AD]	6598) The earliest rolled roads.	London, England (presumably)
182 YBN [11/26/1818 AD]	2341) Comet Encke is identified; the comet with the shortest period (3 years).	Marseilles, France
182 YBN [1818 AD]	2549) That the specific heat (the heat in calories required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree Celsius) of an element is inversely related to its atomic weight is shown.	Paris, France (presumably)
182 YBN [1818 AD]	2585) Strychnine is isolated by French chemists Joseph Bienaimé Caventou {KoVoNTU} and Pierre Joseph Pelletier {PeLTYA}. Strychnine is a poisonous alkaloid from Saint-Ignatius'-beans a woody vine of the Philippines.	Paris, France
182 YBN [1818 AD]	2790) That fungi originate from spores is proven.	Berlin, Germany
181 YBN [12/??/1819 AD]	2768) Isomophism, the similarity of crystal structure between two or more distinct substances, and that isomorphous substances have similar chemical formulas is recognized.	Berlin, Germany
181 YBN [1819 AD]	2598) Two rays of light polarized in perpendicular directions are shown to not interfere with each other by Augustin-Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) and François Arago (oroGO).	Paris, France
180 YBN [04/21/1820 AD]	2454) Electricity is understood to cause magnetism, and the first electromagnet; by Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD), who finds that electric current running through a wire causes a magnetic compass needle to move.	Copenhagen, Denmark
180 YBN [09/18/1820 AD]	2423) The direction of electric current in a wire is related to magnetic force by André Marie Ampère (oMPAR). Ampère (oMPAR) creates the "right hand screw rule". The right hand is imagined holding the wire with the thumb pointing from positive to negative. The fingers then indicate the direction in which the north pole of a magnet will be deflected.	Paris, France
180 YBN [09/25/1820 AD]	2424) Magnetism is identified as electricity by André Marie Ampère (oMPAR); that electric current runs through a permanent magnet.. In addition, Ampère (oMPAR) observes that two parallel wires attract each other when carrying current in the same direction and repel each other when carrying current in opposite directions.	Paris, France
180 YBN [1820 AD]	2486) The electric current meter is invented by Johann Schweigger (sVIGGR), who finds that a deflecting needle can be used to measure a current and that wrapping a wire several turns around a compass needle increases the effect.	Halle, Germany
180 YBN [1820 AD]	2505) The continent of Antarctica is discovered.	Antarctica
180 YBN [1820 AD]	2587) The alkaloids cinchonine, colchicine, and quinine are isolated by Pelletier (PeLTYA) and Caventou (KoVoNTU. These have powerful effects on the animal body and Magendie introduces some of them into medical practice.	Paris, France
180 YBN [1820 AD]	3374) The first gas combustion engine; by William Cecil. This engine uses hydrogen gas combustion to create a vacuum. This engine is stated to run at 60 revolutions per minute, consuming 5.3 cubic meters (17.6 cubic feet) of hydrogen gas per hour.	(Magdalen College) Cambridge, England
179 YBN [07/05/1821 AD]	2883) Electrical current in air and in a vacuum is moved by a magnet.	London, England
179 YBN [09/11/1821 AD]	2701) The dynamic electric motor is invented by Michael Faraday. This electric motor creates sustained mechanical motion from electricity and is based on the principle that like poles of a magnet repel one another.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
179 YBN [1821 AD]	2397) Thermoelectricity (or the Seebeck effect) is discovered by Thomas Johann Seebeck (ZABeK): that an electric current flows between different conductive materials that are kept at different temperatures. This is the basis of the thermocouple and thermopile.	Berlin, Germany
178 YBN [09/01/1822 AD]	1251) The Egyptian language hieroglyphics are deciphered.	France
177 YBN [04/10/1823 AD]	2709) Carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide are liquefied by Michael Faraday.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
177 YBN [06/14/1823 AD]	3297) The grating equation, nλ=Dsinθ is established by Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR). This equation equates wavelength (or particle interval) of light to the grating groove spacing and the angle between the perpendicular to the grating with the spectral line. Fraunhofer then uses this equation to calculate the wavelength of light from a diffraction grating for the first time.	Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany (presumably)
176 YBN [1824 AD]	2494) The element silicon.	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
176 YBN [1824 AD]	2545) Hydrochloric acid is found in the stomach using distillation by Prout.	London, England (presumably)
176 YBN [1824 AD]	2797) The quantity of work done by a heat engine (like the steam engine) is determined to be the temperature of the steam minus the temperature of the cooling water divided by the temperature of the steam by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (KoRnO). This founds the science of thermodynamics, which studies the nature of heat and its conversion to mechanical, electric, and chemical energy.	Paris, France
175 YBN [03/17/1825 AD]	4838) The heat from nerves is measured.	London, England (presumably)
175 YBN [07/??/1825 AD]	2461) The first successful tracheotomy (an incision of and entrance into the trachea through the skin and muscles of the neck).	Tours, France (presumably)
175 YBN [09/27/1825 AD]	2516) The first successful passenger train.	Darlington (and Stockdon), England
175 YBN [1825 AD]	2413) Gymnosperms and angiosperms are distinguished from each other.	London, England (presumably)
175 YBN [1825 AD]	2526) The first practical electromagnet (also known as an inductor) is built by William Sturgeon. This is the first electromagnet that can support more than it's own weight.	Surrey, England (presumably)
175 YBN [1825 AD]	2700) Benzene is identified and isolated by Faraday.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
174 YBN [03/??/1826 AD]	3454) That the spectrum of a flame can be used to detect the presence of chemical compounds is understood.	London, England
174 YBN [07/31/1826 AD]	3440) Electrical oscillation is discovered by Félix Savary. Electrical oscillation is the basis of alternating current and radio {or low frequency light particle} communication.	(Bureau des Longitudes) Paris, France (presumably)
174 YBN [1826 AD]	2355) The first permanent photograph and photograph reproduction process; by Joseph Niepce (nYePS). Niepce coats a pewter plate with asphalt which hardens on exposure to light, and puts this plate into a camera box placed in a sunlit window. After 8 hours, the unlit areas with unhardened asphalt are removed from the plate using oil of lavender mixed with petroleum jelly which leaves the image of his courtyard in relief in exposed metal. Prints of the image can then be made on a press.	Chalon-sur-Saône, France
174 YBN [1826 AD]	2462) The disease diptheria is identified.	Tours, France (presumably)
174 YBN [1826 AD]	2915) The element bromine.	(Montpellier École de Pharmacie) Montpellier, France
174 YBN [1826 AD]	3384) A gas combustion vacuum engine car and boat; by Samuel Brown.	London, England
173 YBN [04/07/1827 AD]	6242) The earliest friction match.	England
173 YBN [05/01/1827 AD]	2606) The concept of electrical resistance, and "Ohm's law" by Georg Simon Ohm (OM): that current is equal to voltage divided by resistance.	Berlin, Germany (written in Cologne?)
173 YBN [1827 AD]	2415) "Brownian motion": the motion of fine powder in water is observed by Robert Brown and is evidence of atoms.	London, England (presumably)
173 YBN [1827 AD]	2546) Food components are classified into carbohydrates, fats, and proteins by Prout.	London, England (presumably)
173 YBN [1827 AD]	2724) The mammal egg, the ovum, is discovered.	(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad, Russia
173 YBN [1827 AD]	2774) That the wavelength (or particle interval) of light of a given spectral line can be used as a standard of length is realized. That the wavelength (or particle interval) of light of a given spectral line can be used as a standard of length is realized by French physicist Jacques Babinet (BoBinA).	Paris, France
173 YBN [1827 AD]	2856) The element aluminum is isolated.	(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school)) Berlin, Germany
173 YBN [1827 AD]	3591) The earliest electric printer by Harrison Gray Dyar. This printer uses static electricity to pass a spark through a rotating strip of litmus paper which, by the formation of nitric acid, leaves a red dot where each spark passes through the paper.	New York City NY (presumably)
172 YBN [02/??/1828 AD]	2857) The first "organic" molecule (urea) is produced from inorganic sources by Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR).	(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school)) Berlin, Germany
172 YBN [06/??/1828 AD]	2805) Insulated electric wire.	Albany, NY, USA
172 YBN [1828 AD]	2383) A light polarizing prism is made from two calcite crystals.	Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)
172 YBN [1828 AD]	6246) The electromagnet armature motor and commutator. The armature is a revolving structure in an electric motor or generator, wound with the coils that carry the current. The commutator is the contact between the rotating shaft electric coils and the external electric supply which cause polarity to reverse each 180 degree turn of the rotating shaft.	Pannonhalma, Hungary (presumably)
171 YBN [03/27/1829 AD]	2844) Electric current is produced by moving a wire near a magnet by Francesco Zantedeschi. This is the phenomenon of dynamic electrical induction.	Pavia, Italy
171 YBN [07/26/1829 AD]	2495) The element thorium.	(Bib Univ) Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
171 YBN [1829 AD]	2507) Elements with similar properties are grouped into triads.	Jena, Germany (presumably)
171 YBN [1829 AD]	2735) The terms "kinetic energy" (as E=½mv²) and "work" (W=Fd) are introduced and defined in their modern form.	Paris, France
171 YBN [1829 AD]	2767) The theory that space is curved; that a curved surface geometry applies to space in the universe by Nikolay Lobachevsky (luBuCAFSKE). The start of "Non-Euclidean" geometry; a geometry where one or more of Euclid's postulates is supposed to be false. Lobachevsky shows that angles in a triangle made of curved lines may not add to pi as one of Euclid's postulates requires and that space in the universe may be "curved" while only appearing to be straight.	Kazan, Russia
171 YBN [1829 AD]	3009) The law of diffusion: that the rate of diffusion of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is inversely proportional to the square root of its density.	(Mechanics' Institute) Glasgow, Scotland
170 YBN [1830 AD]	2624) The practice of blood-letting is denounced.	London, England (presumably)
170 YBN [1830 AD]	4003) The first sound recordings. Sound vibrations are recorded by a tuning fork moving an attached whisker onto a sooted glass plate by German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber.	(University of) Göttingen, Germany
169 YBN [02/17/1831 AD]	2702) The electrical transformer is invented by Michael Faraday. A transformer is a device used to transfer electricity from one circuit to another, in particular a pair of wire coils that can be used to transfer electricity with a change in voltage, current, or phase. Faraday finds that a primary coil does cause current in a secondary coil, but to his surprise, only when the primary current is switched on or off, and not during a constant current as expected.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
169 YBN [08/??/1831 AD]	2525) Chloroform (tri-chloromethane) is synthesized.	Sackets Harbor, NY, USA
169 YBN [09/??/1831 AD]	2705) The (dynamic) electric generator (or "dynamo") is invented by Michael Faraday. By mechanically moving a conductor near a magnet, a constant electric current is produced. Faraday turns a copper disk so that its edge passes between the poles of a permanent magnet. An electric current is created in the copper disk and it continues to flow as long as the wheel continues to turn. That current can be led off and put to work and so is the first electrical generator. Now a steam engine or water power can be used to turn the copper disc to produce electricity. The generator creates a large and cheap supply of electric current.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
169 YBN [10/??/1831 AD]	6601) A heat sensor that can detect heat from a person 25 feet (7 meters) away (the thermo-multiplier).	Naples, Italy
169 YBN [11/15/1831 AD]	2414) The cell nucleus is named.	(Linnean Society) London, England
169 YBN [1831 AD]	2496) The occurrence of different compounds with the same chemical composition is named "isomerism".	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
169 YBN [1831 AD]	2625) That capillaries bring the blood into contact with tissues is shown.	London, England (presumably)
169 YBN [1831 AD]	2895) That iodine can cure goiter is recognized.	Lyon, France (presumably)
168 YBN [01/03/1832 AD]	2808) Self induction is recognized: that the magnetic field from a changing electric current (in a coil) induces an electromotive force opposing the current.	Albany, NY, USA
168 YBN [12/15/1832 AD]	2448) A set of units to measure magnetism is created.	Göttingen, Germany (presumably)
168 YBN [1832 AD]	2514) The first plastic materials, made of nitrocellulose, are created by Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) by treating starch, sawdust, and cotton with nitric acid.	Nancy, France
168 YBN [1832 AD]	2717) The alternating electric current (or AC) generator is invented by Antoine-Hippolyte Pixii. In this device a rotating permanent magnet induces an alternating current in the field coils of a stationary horseshoe electromagnet.	Paris, France
168 YBN [1832 AD]	2860) A number of substances are shown to contain a common group or "radical".	(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school)) Berlin, Germany (and (University of Giessen), Giessen, Germany)
168 YBN [1832 AD]	6599) Roads are paved with asphalt.	France|(Pont Moraud Bridge) Lyons, France|(A bridge in) Paris, France
167 YBN [02/28/1833 AD]	2906) The Christie (or Wheatstone) Bridge; a method for comparing the resistances of wires of different thicknesses. (verify)	Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, England
167 YBN [07/07/1833 AD]	2931) That electrical resistance in metals increases with temperature is shown.	(University of St. Petersburg) St. Petersberg, Russia (presumably)
167 YBN [1833 AD]	2578) Sweat glands are identified.	(Breslau, Prussia now:)Wroclaw, Poland
167 YBN [1833 AD]	2786) The first enzyme is discovered and isolated; diastase {DI-u-STAS}, which speeds the conversion of starch to sugar. An enzyme is a protein that can regulate the rate of chemical changes as a catalyst; being unchanged in the process.	Paris, France (presumably)
167 YBN [1833 AD]	2901) A stereoscope, a device for observing pictures in three dimensions.	(King's College) London, England
166 YBN [01/01/1834 AD]	1247) A mechanical reaper; a machine that cuts grain is invented by Cyrus McCormick. Early reapers simply cut the crop and drop it unbound.	Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA
166 YBN [01/09/1834 AD]	2704) The laws of electrolysis by Faraday: the mass of a substance deposited on an electrode is in proportion to the quantity of electricity and to the atomic mass of the element liberated.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
166 YBN [06/19/1834 AD]	2899) The speed of electricity in wire is measured using a rotating mirror by English physicist Charles Wheatstone.	(King's College) London, England
166 YBN [1834 AD]	2539) The stars Sirius and Procyon are shown to have displacements in their motion later attributed to unseen companions rotating around them.	Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany
166 YBN [1834 AD]	2741) The "Analytical Engine", a programmable mechanical calculating machine design that uses punch card programs, has a separate memory and central processor, is capable of looping, iteration (the ability to repeat a sequence of operations a programmable number of times), and conditional branching (IF...THEN statements).	Cambridge, England (presumably)
166 YBN [1834 AD]	2758) The first computer program.	Cambridge, England (presumably)
166 YBN [1834 AD]	2787) The carbohydrate cellulose is discovered.	Paris, France (presumably)
166 YBN [1834 AD]	2851) Methyl alcohol (methanol) is discovered by distilling wood.	(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France (presumably)
166 YBN [1834 AD]	2853) The Law of substitution: that hydrogen atoms (electropositive) can be substituted by chlorine or oxygen atoms (electronegative) in certain reactions without any drastic alteration in the structure.	(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France (presumably)
166 YBN [1834 AD]	3076) An antidote to arsenic poisoning is found: freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide.	(University of Göttingen), Göttingen, Germany
165 YBN [01/29/1835 AD]	3459) The infrared light can be reflected, refracted and polarized is proven.	(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh, Scotland
165 YBN [02/06/1835 AD]	2810) The electrical relay is invented by Joseph Henry. The relay is a device that allows the electric current of telegraph signals to be carried over long distances.	Princeton, NJ, USA
165 YBN [08/12/1835 AD]	2900) That sparks from electrodes made of different metals give distinctive spectra, which allow a method of distinguishing between them is shown by Charles Wheatstone.	(King's College) London, England
165 YBN [1835 AD]	2498) The name "catalysis" is suggested by Berzelius (BRZElEuS) for reactions that occur only in the presence of a third substance.	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
165 YBN [1835 AD]	2738) The "Coriolis effect": how air moving away from the equator retains a higher horizontal velocity and so moves ahead of the land above or below the equator.	Paris, France
165 YBN [1835 AD]	3300) The process of silvering objects by chemical reduction of a silver nitrate solution with an aldehyde. This is the modern process of silvering glass for mirrors.	(University of Giessen), Giessen, Germany
165 YBN [1835 AD]	3896) A microscopic parasitic fungus disease is discovered in silkworms.	Lodi, Italy (verify)
165 YBN [1835 AD]	6623) Vinyl chloride is discovered, a colourless, flammable, toxic gas belonging to the family of organohalogen compounds and used mostly in making polyvinyl chloride, or PVC, a widely used plastic.	(University of Lyons) Lyons, France
164 YBN [02/09/1836 AD]	6602) The nerve cell, or neuron is first identified.	(Breslau now:) Wrocław, Poland (presumably)
164 YBN [1836 AD]	2813) A high voltage induction coil is built by Nicholas Joseph Callan. This coil can reach an estimated 600,000 volts, the highest voltage created at the time, far above any voltage that can be generated with a voltaic pile.	Maynooth, Ireland
164 YBN [1836 AD]	2863) Acetylene, a flammable gas is discovered.	(Royal Dublin Society) Dublin, Ireland (presumably)
164 YBN [1836 AD]	2926) A screw propeller that replaces the paddle wheel.	London, England (presumably)
164 YBN [1836 AD]	3070) The enzyme pepsin, a substance responsible for digestion in the stomach is isolated and named.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
164 YBN [1836 AD]	3071) That yeast is a living organism and the cause of fermentation of sugar and starch is recognized.	(University of Louvain) Louvain, Belgium (verify)
164 YBN [1836 AD]	6257) The electric motor train.	Brandon, Vermont, USA
163 YBN [07/??/1837 AD]	3995) This principle of the electric speaker; that an iron bar emits sounds that correspond to the number of currents that rapidly magnetize and demagnetize it.	Salem, Massachusetts, USA
162 YBN [12/??/1838 AD]	3103) The basis of the fuel-cell battery: the chemical union of hydrogen and oxygen gas in acidified water caused by platinum that generates electricity.	(University of Basel) Basel, Switzerland
162 YBN [1838 AD]	2500) The occurrence of different forms of the same element is named "allotropy".	Stokholm, Sweden (presumably)
162 YBN [1838 AD]	2540) The parallax of a different star is measured by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. By comparing the position of 61 Cygni, to two other more distant stars during the course of a year. After correcting for the proper motion, the star appears to move in an ellipse every year which is due to parallax.	Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany
162 YBN [1838 AD]	2854) Three hydrogens in acetic acid are replaced with chlorines to produce a compound with similar properties supporting the theory of substitution.	(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France (presumably)
162 YBN [1838 AD]	2918) The name protein is used to describe the nitrogenous parts of all tissue.	Rotterdam?, Netherlands (presumably)
162 YBN [1838 AD]	2934) The first cell theory: that all plants are made of cells by Matthias Jakob Schleiden (slIDeN).	(University of Jena) Jena, Germany
162 YBN [1838 AD]	3006) The mass of Uranus is determined from the motion of its satellites.	(Royal Observatory) Bogenhausen, Germany
162 YBN [1838 AD]	3157) That nerves are not hollow tubes, but are solid and flat is proven.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany (presumably)
162 YBN [1838 AD]	3386) The direct-acting gas combustion engine; a cylinder is directly moved by the explosion.	?, England
161 YBN [01/09/1839 AD]	2617) Photograph making is reduced from 8 hours to 30 minutes.	Paris, France
161 YBN [02/??/1839 AD]	3100) A "gas battery" which uses hydrogen and oxygen gas to produce electricity; the first "fuel cell".	London, England
161 YBN [07/29/1839 AD]	3308) Light is converted into electricity by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel (BeKreL), (the photoelectric or photovoltaic effect). This is the first photovoltaic (or "solar") cell. Becquerel demonstrates that allowing sunlight to contact metal electrodes, such as platinum, gold, and silver while immersed in a liquid electrolyte (such as ferric chloride mixed with ether) produces a very small electric current.	(University of Paris) Paris, France
161 YBN [1839 AD]	2660) The first telegraph line in England.	Liverpool (and Manchester), England
161 YBN [1839 AD]	2800) The element Lanthanum {laNtenuM}.	(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm, Sweden
161 YBN [1839 AD]	2820) The parallax of Alpha Centauri, the third brightest star as seen from Earth, is measured to be 0.75 of a second, which puts Alpha Centauri at 4 light years away; the closest known star to the Sun.	(University of Edinburgh)Edinburgh, Scotland (and observation in Cape Town, South Africa)
161 YBN [1839 AD]	2862) "Vulcanized" rubber is made by heating rubber with sulfur. This solves the problem of rubber melting in warmth and cracking in cold.	Woburn, Massachussetts, USA (presumably)
161 YBN [1839 AD]	3072) Cell theory is extended to all animals and plants.	(University of Louvain) Louvain, Belgium
161 YBN [1839 AD]	3137) The plastic polystyrene is discovered. This is the first recorded instance of polymerization.	Berlin, Germany
160 YBN [03/12/1840 AD]	3875) Infrared spectral lines are identified from sun light by John Herschel using a thin paper coated with ink which appears lighter in color where spectral emission lines have dried it.	London, England (presumably)
160 YBN [12/17/1840 AD]	3238) The heat created by electrical current is found to equal the square of the current multiplied by the resistance.	Broom Hill (near Manchester), England
160 YBN [1840 AD]	2827) Ozone is identified and named.	(University of Basel) Basel, Switzerland
160 YBN [1840 AD]	2904) A device that can measure an interval of 137 microseconds.	(King's College) London, England (presumably)
160 YBN [1840 AD]	2914) Hess' law: That the amount of heat involved in producing one chemical from another is always the same, no matter what chemical route the reaction takes or how many stages are taken.	(University of Saint Petersberg) Saint Petersberg, Russia (presumably)
160 YBN [1840 AD]	2921) The first chemical fertilizers. That loss of soil fertility is caused by the consumption by plants of the minerals necessary for life such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus is recognized.	(University of Giessen), Giessen, Germany
159 YBN [01/11/1841 AD]	3600) An electric clock.	London, England
159 YBN [1841 AD]	2903) Telegrams are typed in letters on paper.	(King's College) London, England (presumably)
159 YBN [1841 AD]	3158) Cell division is described by Robert Remak (rAmaK).	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany (presumably)
159 YBN [1841 AD]	3159) The three embryo germ layers are identified and named "ectoderm" (outer skin), "mesoderm" (middle skin), and "endoderm" (inner skin).	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany (presumably)
159 YBN [1841 AD]	3190) That sperm are cells is demonstrated and the theory that the nucleus transmits inherited characteristics is suggested.	(University of Zurich) Zurich, Switzerland
158 YBN [03/30/1842 AD]	3171) The first use of an anesthetic for surgery; by Crawford Williamson Long. A person is made to lose consciousness by inhaling ether before surgery in which a neck tumor is removed. When the person operated on regains consciousness he tells Long that he did not experienced any pain.	Jefferson, Georgia
158 YBN [06/17/1842 AD]	2812) The basis of invisible particle communication (radio), a spark magnetizes a needle 7 miles away.	Princeton, NJ, USA
158 YBN [07/04/1842 AD]	5837) The "light fountain" or "light pipe". This is the basis of fiber optic communication.	Paris, France (presumably)
158 YBN [07/??/1842 AD]	2801) The elements erbium, and terbium.	(Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm, Sweden
158 YBN [1842 AD]	2929) The Doppler effect: that frequency of light and sound is affected by the relative motion of the source and observer is described by Christian Johann Doppler (DoPlR).	(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech Technical University)Prague, Czech Republic
157 YBN [1843 AD]	3231) That a nerve can carry a negatively charged impulse from one end to the other is demonstrated.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
157 YBN [1843 AD]	6240) The first remote controlled wired explosive by Samuel Colt; an electrically discharged naval mine.	Paterson, New Jersey, USA (presumably)
156 YBN [1844 AD]	2795) The element ruthenium {rUtENEuM}.	St. Petersberg, Russia
156 YBN [1844 AD]	3047) "Transcendental numbers" are identified: an irrational number that cannot be the root of any polynomial with rational-number coefficients.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
156 YBN [1844 AD]	3093) The first photographs from a microscope.	(New York University) New York City, New York, USA
156 YBN [1844 AD]	3898) Leukaemia is described: a condition in which large numbers of abnormal white cells accumulate.	(Hotel dieu) Paris, France (verify)
155 YBN [04/??/1845 AD]	2839) The spiral shape of other galaxies is recognized by William Parsons, (Third Earl of Rosse), although at the time the other galaxies are thought to be nebulae. After constructing a 72-inch (1.8 m) reflector telescope, the largest on Earth, Parsons examines M51 and discovers that the nebula has a spiral structure and contains stars.	(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland
155 YBN [09/18/1845 AD]	2713) Plane polarized light is rotated when passing through glass subjected to an electromagnetic field.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
155 YBN [12/24/1845 AD]	2714) Diamagnetism is discovered, unlike iron, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic poles.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
155 YBN [1845 AD]	3227) The organic molecule acetic acid is synthesized from inorganic molecules.	(University of Marburg) Marburg, Germany
155 YBN [1845 AD]	3295) A microscope is lit by the light of an electric arc.	Paris, France
155 YBN [1845 AD]	3401) The air filled tire.	London, England (presumably)
155 YBN [1845 AD]	3451) Kirchhoff's laws: that the sum of the currents into a junction equal the sum of the currents out of the junction, and that the sum of the voltages around a loop is equal to the sum of voltage drops across each of the resistances in the loop.	(University of K�nigsberg) K�nigsberg, Prussia (now Germany) (presumably)
154 YBN [09/23/1846 AD]	3073) Planet Neptune is first observed by Johann Gottfried Galle (GoLu).	Berlin, Germany (and Paris, France)
154 YBN [10/10/1846 AD]	2824) Triton, the largest moon of Neptune is seen.	(Starfield Observatory) Liverpool, England
154 YBN [10/??/1846 AD]	3022) Mathematical equations are used to represent logical statements.	(University College) London, England
154 YBN [1846 AD]	2716) The theory that gravity propagates with a finite velocity.	(Royal Institution in) London, England
154 YBN [1846 AD]	2828) The liquid explosive nitroglycerine is created by Ascanio Sobrero (SOBrArO) by slowly adding glycerine to a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids.	Torino, Italy (presumably)
154 YBN [1846 AD]	2944) A system of units for electricity.	(University of) Leipzig, Germany
153 YBN [1847 AD]	2754) The ophthalmoscope: an instrument used to study the retina of the eye.	Cambridge, England (presumably)
153 YBN [1847 AD]	3094) That all substances become incandescent (start to glow red) at the same temperature (around 525ºC) and that with rising temperature they emit rays of increasing refrangibility is recognized.	(New York University) New York City, New York, USA
153 YBN [1847 AD]	3213) Antisepsis (washing hands in strong chemicals) is introduced into the health practice.	(Vienna General Hospital) Vienna, (Austria now:) Germany
153 YBN [1847 AD]	3225) The percussion gun cartridge, a casing containing an explosive charge and a bullet or shot.	Paris, France
152 YBN [06/05/1848 AD]	3477) The absolute temperature scale is created by William Thomson Kelvin, with -273°C as absolute 0, where all molecules stop moving.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland
152 YBN [08/10/1848 AD]	2880) A constant high voltage from an induction coil is applied through evacuated tubes filled with various gases by William Robert Grove.	London, England (presumably)
152 YBN [08/??/1848 AD]	3241) The speed of gas molecules of hydrogen at a pressure of 30 inches and temperature 60° is estimated to be 6225 feet (1897 km) per second.	(read at) Swansea, Wales, England
152 YBN [1848 AD]	2811) Sunspots are shown to be cooler than the rest of the Sun.	Princeton, NJ, USA
152 YBN [1848 AD]	3333) That most of the heat produced by animals is from muscle contraction is known.	(Physikalische Gesellschaft) Berlin, Germany
151 YBN [01/20/1849 AD]	3280) That two yellow lines missing in the spectrum of sunlight are emitted from and also absorbed by an electric arc between coal electrodes is observed.	Paris, France (presumably)
151 YBN [07/23/1849 AD]	3290) The speed of light is measured using a terrestrial method by Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau (FEZO). Light passes between the teeth of a rapidly turning toothed disc on one hilltop and reflects off a mirror on another 8 km (or 5 miles) away.	Paris, France
151 YBN [11/05/1849 AD]	3488) The first "organo-metallic" (or hydrocarbon-metallic) compounds. This is the first time a metal atom is added to a hydrocarbon molecule: the new compound zincmethyl is created when zinc and methyl are joined.	(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England
151 YBN [1849 AD]	3114) The main processes of digestion are found to take place in the small intestine, not in the stomach as was believed.	(Collège de France) Paris, France
151 YBN [1849 AD]	3195) The first "amine", and organic derivative of ammonia; ethylamine is made by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia (NH3) with a hydrocarbon radical.	(Ecole de Médicine, School of Medicine) Paris, France
151 YBN [1849 AD]	3229) Electrolysis is applied to organic compounds.	Braunschweig, Germany
150 YBN [05/06/1850 AD]	3281) Light is shown to move more slowly in water than in air, and the speed of light is shown to be inversely proportional to the index of refraction of the medium, by Jean Foucault (FUKo).	Paris, France (presumably)
150 YBN [08/27/1850 AD]	3265) The first commercial oil refinery; which distills kerosene from crude oil as a lower cost illuminating oil.	Tarentum, Pennsylvania, USA
150 YBN [1850 AD]	3019) Ocean depths are mapped and the Atlantic ridge is discovered.	Washington, DC, USA
150 YBN [1850 AD]	3115) The liver is shown to synthesize glucose which shows that an organ can have more than one function, and that, like plants, animals can also synthesize nutrients.	(Collège de France) Paris, France
150 YBN [1850 AD]	3332) The speed of electricity in nerves is measured as 27 m/s (90 ft/s) by Hermann Helmholtz.	(University of Königsberg) Königsberg, Germany
150 YBN [1850 AD]	3471) The molecular difference between ethers and alcohols is determined.	(University College, London) London, England
149 YBN [02/03/1851 AD]	3282) The rotation of the Earth around its own axis is proven experimentally with a pendulum by Foucault (FUKo).	Paris, France (presumably)
149 YBN [09/29/1851 AD]	3292) The speed of light in water is shown to change depending on the motion of water by Fizeau (FEZO).	Paris, France (presumably)
149 YBN [11/25/1851 AD]	6258) The zipper.	Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
149 YBN [1851 AD]	2825) The moons of Uranus Ariel and Umbriel are identified.	Malta
149 YBN [1851 AD]	3025) A seismometer, a device used to determine the direction, intensity, and duration of earthquakes by measuring the actual movement of the ground.	Dublin, Ireland (presumably)
149 YBN [1851 AD]	3474) The "alternation of generations" life-cycle is discovered (in land plants).	Leipzig, Germany (presumably)
148 YBN [01/07/1852 AD]	6505) Electrolysis is performed on gases.	London, England (presumably)
148 YBN [05/10/1852 AD]	3489) The theory of "valence": that each type of atom has a fixed capacity for combining with other atoms is created by Edward Frankland.	(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England
148 YBN [05/11/1852 AD]	3274) The term "fluorescence" is introduced to describe phosphorescence that lasts only as long as the material is exposed to light and Stokes' law of fluorescence: that the emitted light is always of lower frequency than the exciting light.	Cambridge, England
148 YBN [1852 AD]	3104) A practical passenger elevator with a safety device is invented by Elisha Graves Otis.	Yonkers, NY, USA
147 YBN [02/16/1853 AD]	3143) The theory that a gas absorbs and emits light of the same frequencies.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden
147 YBN [1853 AD]	3312) The concept of energy is distinguished into "actual" and "potential" energy.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland, UK
147 YBN [1853 AD]	6247) Aspirin.	Paris, France (presumably)
147 YBN [1853 AD]	6545) Spectral lines from the Sun are matched to spectral lines from chemical elements.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden
146 YBN [1854 AD]	2792) Fossils of microorganisms.	Berlin, Germany
146 YBN [1854 AD]	2945) The theory that an electrical mass will not be influenced by the electrical force if moving with a velocity at least the speed of light.	(University of) G�ttingen, Germany
146 YBN [1854 AD]	3111) That an epidemic of cholera is due to a transmissible agent in drinking water is understood.	London, England
146 YBN [1854 AD]	3472) That a catalytic chemical reaction is based on the formation of an intermediate compound is recognized.	(University College, London) London, England
146 YBN [1854 AD]	3551) The first naturally occurring and artificial fats are synthesized by combining glycerol and fatty acids.	(Collège de France) Paris, France
146 YBN [1854 AD]	3552) Benzene is synthesized by heating acetylene in a glass tube, which polymerizes.	(Collège de France) Paris, France
146 YBN [1854 AD]	6603) Kerosene is named by British physician Abraham Gesner. Gesner distills kerosene from pitch (a thick, tar-like substance obtained by distilling coal tar, one of the products of the distillation of coal).	(patented and distributed) Blissville, Long Island, NY, USA|(first distilled) Halifax, Nova Scotia
145 YBN [12/10/1855 AD]	3641) The concept of magnetic quantity and magnetic intensity, which are analogous to electrical current and voltage, and equations to describe electromagnetic action, induction and the forces between two currents are introduced.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
145 YBN [1855 AD]	2764) A disease is shown to be associated with changes in one of the endocrine glands; Addison's disease, the hormone deficiency disease that results from the deterioration of the adrenal cortex.	(Guy's Hospital) London, England
145 YBN [1855 AD]	3131) Parkesine plastic objects.	(Elkington and Mason copper smelting plant) Pembrey, South Wales, England
145 YBN [1855 AD]	3139) The Geissler pump; which uses liquid mercury to create a vacuum in containers more thoroughly than any before.	Bonn, Germany
145 YBN [1855 AD]	3163) That a current from two electrodes applied to wet skin can contract muscles is found.	Paris, France
145 YBN [1855 AD]	3196) Long-chain hydrocarbons are synthesized.	(Ecole de Médicine, School of Medicine) Paris, France
145 YBN [1855 AD]	3200) The price of aluminum is reduced 100x using the reduction of aluminum chloride by metallic sodium.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
145 YBN [1855 AD]	3553) Ethyl alcohol is synthesized from ethylene by treatment with sulfuric acid.	(Collège de France) Paris, France
144 YBN [04/21/1856 AD]	3457) The bright D spectral lines in flames of hydrocarbons are shown to be attributed to sodium and the widespread occurrence of the D lines due to the contamination of small amounts of sodium.	Edinburgh, Scotland
144 YBN [1856 AD]	3109) The "Bessimer process" of burning away impurities by blowing air through molten iron makes possible bulk steel production.	Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England (announcement)
144 YBN [1856 AD]	3118) That carbon monoxide replaces oxygen in combining with hemoglobin causing death by oxygen starvation is shown.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
144 YBN [1856 AD]	3119) Glycogen is identified in animals, and shown to serve as a reserve of carbohydrates that can be broken down into sugar again when necessary.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
144 YBN [1856 AD]	3181) The first animal organs are kept alive in vitro (outside the animal's body) by pumping (perfusing) frog hearts with a solution similar to the composition of blood plasma.	(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria, Germany
144 YBN [1856 AD]	3774) The first synthetic dyes are produced (aniline dyes).	(Royal College of Chemistry) London, England
143 YBN [03/24/1857 AD]	3999) Sound is recorded mechanically by the sound vibrating a stylus that draws onto paper by Leon Scott.	Paris, France
143 YBN [12/10/1857 AD]	3325) Mathematical matrices are created.	London, England (presumably)
143 YBN [1857 AD]	2831) Cuneiform inscriptions are deciphered.	Wiltshire, England (presumably)
143 YBN [1857 AD]	2858) Silane (SiH4) the silicon analog of methane (CH4) is synthesized.	(University of G�ttingen) G�ttingen, Germany (presumably)
143 YBN [1857 AD]	3628) That mountain ranges are created by horizontal movements of the Earth's crust is realized.	(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria (now Germany)
142 YBN [03/30/1858 AD]	2974) The luminescence of various gases in vacuum tubes under a high voltage is observed, determined to be from the gases (not the electrodes), and the spectrum of the light found to be specific to each gas.	(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
142 YBN [07/01/1858 AD]	3033) The theory of evolution is popularized by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. The theory of evolution is the theory that life descends from a single common ancestor, that many more organisms than can survive are born, each with individual differences, and through a process of natural selection, only the best adapted can survive to reproduce and pass on their successful traits while the less adapted die out. Many religious people are shocked because if humans and apes have a common ancestor, humans no longer have a privileged position as created by a god in his own image. In addition if all organisms originate by natural selection, the argument for the existence of a god based on the idea that a god designed the organisms is destroyed.	(Linnean Society), London, England
142 YBN [08/16/1858 AD]	3305) The first transatlantic cable.	(Newfoundland to Ireland) Atlantic Ocean
142 YBN [1858 AD]	3205) Farsightedness is shown to be caused by a shortening of the eyeball, so that light rays refracted by the lens of the eye converge behind the retina.	(University of Utrecht) Utrecht, Netherlands
142 YBN [1858 AD]	3408) The first solution to the general equation of the fifth degree, the quintic equation.	(Collège de France) Paris, France (presumably)
142 YBN [1858 AD]	3415) Penecillium, a plant mold, growing in crystals of racemic acid, is shown to use only one optical isomer of two available in racemic acid.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
141 YBN [08/10/1859 AD]	3754) That nerve fibers can conduct impulses in both directions is demonstrated.	(University of ?) Paris, France
141 YBN [08/27/1859 AD]	3264) The first modern oil well.	(near) Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA
141 YBN [09/23/1859 AD]	3074) The perihelion (the point of the orbit nearest the Sun) of Mercury is found to advance 38 seconds of arc per century.	Paris, France
141 YBN [10/20/1859 AD]	3087) The spectral lines emitted when a substance is burned are used to determine the atomic composition of the substance by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff (KRKHuF). Bunsen and Kirchhoff also demonstrate that each element emits and absorbs light at the same specific frequencies, and identify the first element in the atmosphere of the Sun, sodium, from the two dark "D" lines in the Sun's spectrum. Bunsen and Kirchhoff also find that a spectral emission line can only be reversed to an absorption line when the absorber is colder than the emitter.	(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany
141 YBN [12/11/1859 AD]	3456) The theory that a body at constant temperature emits and absorbs heat at the same rate and the concept of a perfectly black body; one which absorbs light of all frequencies and reflects none.	(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany
141 YBN [1859 AD]	3183) Oxygen is found to bubble out of blood in a vacuum.	(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria, Germany
141 YBN [1859 AD]	3373) The first successful direct-acting gas combustion engine is invented by Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir (lunWoR).	?, France
141 YBN [1859 AD]	3536) A solar flare is observed.	(Redhill Observatory) Surrey, England
141 YBN [1859 AD]	3714) The first rechargeable battery which is based on lead plates immersed in sulfuric acid.	(Conservatory of Arts and Crafts) Paris, France
140 YBN [04/16/1860 AD]	3088) The element cesium is identified by Robert Bunsen. Cesium is the first element to be discovered spectroscopically.	(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany
140 YBN [04/??/1860 AD]	3458) The position of the spectral emission lines are found to be the same for a variety of metals, independent of the molecular compound the metal is in, the heat source used, and enormous differences of temperature. Sodium, Lithium, Potassium, Calcium and Strontium are identified in various minerals by spectral analysis and that fact that not only potassium and sodium, but also lithium and strontium are among the most widely scattered substances of Earth is realized.	(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany
140 YBN [1860 AD]	3124) The atomic masses of some elements are found to be far from integral values and this casts doubt on Prout's hypothesis that all atoms larger than hydrogen are composed of multiples of hydrogen.	(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France (presumably)
140 YBN [1860 AD]	3125) Formaldehyde is synthesized and a carbohydrate is synthesized from a polymer of formaldehyde.	(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia
140 YBN [1860 AD]	3177) The spectra of stars are classified.	Florence, Italy
140 YBN [1860 AD]	3532) The ring-wound electrical generator and motor.	(University of Pisa) Pisa, Italy
140 YBN [1860 AD]	3573) An electric lamp with a carbon filament in an evacuated glass.	Newcastle, England (presumably)
140 YBN [1860 AD]	3586) Invertebrates are found to be living over about a mile (or km) deep in the ocean.	(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably)
139 YBN [02/25/1861 AD]	3089) The element rubidium {rUBiDEuM} is identified from its spectrum.	(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany
139 YBN [04/26/1861 AD]	3726) The asteroid Hesperia is identified.	(Brera Observatory) Milan, Italy
139 YBN [06/??/1861 AD]	3462) By matching solar dark lines to the bright lines emitted by elements, Kirchhoff explains that the atmosphere of the sun contains iron, chromium, nickel, barium, copper, and zinc but does not contain gold, silver, mercury, aluminum, cadmium, tin, lead, antimony, arsenic, strontium, lithium, or silicon.	(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany
139 YBN [10/26/1861 AD]	3997) The first microphone, speaker, and telephone is invented by Johann Philipp Reis. Sound is converted to electricity and back to sound again. A microphone converts variations in sound (air pressure) into variations in electric current, which can be carried over long distances in metal wire, and then converted back into the air vibrations of sound using a speaker. Sound can be sent farther as electric current in a wire than mechanically in air and travels silently.	(built in workshop behind Reis's house and cabinet in Garnier's Institute, Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany
139 YBN [11/07/1861 AD]	3493) That the spectrum of an element may change with change in temperature is proven by showing that at high temperatures a blue line appears for lithium.	(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London, England
139 YBN [1861 AD]	2651) The first transcontinental telegraph line, connecting San Francisco to the East Coast of the USA.	USA
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3015) The process of dialysis to separate different substances is invented.	(Mint) London, England
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3193) That sperm are formed from the tubular walls of the testis, just as pollen grains are formed from cells of the anthers is shown.	(University of Würzburg) Würzburg, Germany
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3417) That some microorganisms are anaerobic (do not need oxygen) and others are aerobic (need oxygen) is established.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3486) Damage to a certain location on the cerebrum is associated with the loss of the ability to speak.	(University of Paris) Paris, France (presumably)
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3498) The phenomenon of "mimicry" is identified; the resemblance of one organism to another or to an object in its surroundings for concealment and protection from predators.	London, England (presumably)
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3541) That all known eggs and sperm are single cells, even the giant eggs of birds and reptiles, is shown.	(U of Jena) Jena, Germany
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3582) Organic chemistry is defined as merely the chemistry of carbon compounds with no mention of living organisms.	(University of Ghent) Ghent, Belgium
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3645) The first color image is projected by James Clerk Maxwell.	(King's College, exhibit at the Royal Institution) London, England
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3672) The element thallium {taLEuM}.	(private lab) London, England (presumably)
139 YBN [1861 AD]	3779) Sodium bicarbonate is made at far less cost from salt water, ammonia and carbon dioxide.	(Solvay factory) Charleroi, Belgium
138 YBN [01/31/1862 AD]	3685) Sirius B is observed.	Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, USA
138 YBN [02/??/1862 AD]	3743) The spectra of metallic compounds are found to be different than the spectra of the metals themselves.	(University of Berlin?) Berlin, Germany
138 YBN [11/04/1862 AD]	3219) The machine gun (or Gatling gun) is invented by Richard Jordan Gatling and can fire 200 bullets per minute (around 3 bullets a second).	Indianapolis, Indiana (presumably)
138 YBN [1862 AD]	2861) Calcium carbide is discovered, and mixing it with water is found to produce the flammable gas acetylene.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany (presumably)
138 YBN [1862 AD]	3146) Hydrogen is detected in the spectrum of the Sun's atmosphere.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden
138 YBN [1862 AD]	3206) That the blurred vision of astigmatism is caused by the uneven curvature of the cornea or lens which diffuse light beams instead of focusing them is found. The cornea is the transparent curved part of the front of the eyeball.	(University of Utrecht) Utrecht, Netherlands
138 YBN [1862 AD]	3306) A periodic table of elements.	(École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris) Paris, France
138 YBN [1862 AD]	3375) The first direct-acting internal combustion gas engine car (or horseless carriage) is built by (Jean-Joseph-) Étienne Lenoir.	Paris, France (presumably)
138 YBN [1862 AD]	3517) The protein Hemoglobin in prepared in crystalline form.	(University of Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany
138 YBN [1862 AD]	3521) The absorption spectrum of a protein is described.	(University of Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany
137 YBN [02/19/1863 AD]	3427) Spectral lines from elements are matched to spectral lines from other stars by William Huggins and William Miller.	(Tulse Hill) London, England
137 YBN [1863 AD]	3414) The process of pasteurization is shown by Louis Pasteur (PoSTUR). Pasteur discovers the microorganism responsible for the souring of wine and shows how heating (pasteurization) stops fermented substances like wine and beer from going sour.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
137 YBN [1863 AD]	3487) The element indium is discovered using spectroscopic analysis.	(Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony, Germany
137 YBN [1863 AD]	3537) That the Sun does not rotate as a single piece but that sun spots at the equator rotate over two days faster than sunspots at higher latitudes is discovered.	(Redhill Observatory) Surrey, England
137 YBN [1863 AD]	3587) The sphygmograph; an instrument for recording graphically the pulse rate and changes in blood pressure.	Paris, France (presumably)
136 YBN [02/23/1864 AD]	3466) Some substances are found to exhibit different spectra, depending on the manner in which they are excited (by flame or electricity) and spectra are divided into spectra with bands and spectra with lines which will be later interpreted as the distinction between the spectra of molecules and the spectra of atoms.	(University of Bonn) Bonn (and Münster), Germany
136 YBN [08/05/1864 AD]	3178) The spectrum of a comet is first described. At a distance from the Sun the comet shows only the spectrum of reflected sunlight, but when the comet gets closer to the Sun the spectrum changes (because light is emitted from luminous gas in the comet tail).	Florence, Italy
136 YBN [09/08/1864 AD]	3428) The spectra of nebulae and galaxies are seen by William Huggins and William Miller. Unlike stars, nebulae are shown to have no spectrum except for a few emission lines, and therefore to be composed of gas by using spectral comparison. Huggins and Miller describe nebulae as "enormous masses of luminous gas or vapour". Huggins and Miller describe the spectrum of the Andromeda galaxy and a globular cluster to have a continuous spectrum with absorption lines, similar to that of a star.	(Tulse Hill)London, England
136 YBN [10/27/1864 AD]	3657) The theory that light is an electromagnetic transverse wave in a surrounding aether medium is created by James Clerk Maxwell. This theory, like the other wave theories for light, conflicts with the corpuscular theory in which light is theorized to be made of material particles that move through mostly empty space.	(King's College) London, England
135 YBN [04/24/1865 AD]	3370) The theory of "entropy" (also called the second law of thermodynamics) by Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius (KLoUZEUS). Entropy is the quantity of a body's energy that is unavailable for work.	(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany
135 YBN [08/12/1865 AD]	3548) Wounds are disinfected with carbolic acid (also known as phenol).	(University of Glasgow) Glagow, Scotland
135 YBN [1865 AD]	3403) The law of genetic inheritance (the 1:2:1 ratio of inheritance of a trait) is described by Gregor Johann Mendel. Mendel is the first to follow specific characteristics through generations, and show that characteristics are inherited in an all or none fashion.	(Natural Science Society) Brünn, Austria (now: Brno, the Czech Republic)
135 YBN [1865 AD]	3558) Chemical reactions are defined as "exothermic" for reactions that give off heat, and "endothermic" for reactions that absorb heat.	(Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie) Paris, France
135 YBN [1865 AD]	3583) That benzene is a ring of carbon atoms is understood.	(University of Ghent) Ghent, Belgium
134 YBN [01/11/1866 AD]	3431) Nitrogen is identified in the spectra of a comet.	(Tulse Hill)London, England
134 YBN [03/04/1866 AD]	3736) The spectrum of a sun spot is seen to have the same but thicker absorption lines as the photosphere.	(at home, employed at War Office) Wimbledon, England
134 YBN [05/17/1866 AD]	3430) A nova (an exploded star) is found to be surrounded by hydrogen gas from its spectrum.	(Tulse Hill)London, England
134 YBN [1866 AD]	3267) A meteor swarm is shown to have a comet-like orbit.	(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge, England
134 YBN [1866 AD]	3491) The word "bond" is defined as the connection between elements of a compound.	(Royal Institution) London, England
134 YBN [1866 AD]	3679) Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) is prepared and recognized as a phosphor (a substance that exhibits phosphorescence, a luminescence that persists after removal of the exciting source).	(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris, France
134 YBN [1866 AD]	3695) Dynamite is invented by Alfred Nobel. Dynamite is an explosive based on nitroglycerine but is much safer to handle because it cannot be exploded without a detonating cap and is just as explosive as nitroglycerine.	Paris, France (guess)
134 YBN [1866 AD]	3792) The wavelength of sound in different gases is determined by dusting the inside of a tube with a fine powder which is shaped by the moving gas to show the position of nodes of the sound waves.	(University of Berlin?) Berlin, Germany
132 YBN [03/24/1868 AD]	5834) A motorized two leg (bipedal) walking robot that pulls a cart is built.	Newark, New Jersey, USA
132 YBN [04/23/1868 AD]	3435) The Doppler effect is used by William Huggins to estimate the relative radial (or line of sight) velocity of celestial objects by comparing the position of spectral lines from the celestial object to those of a terrestrial light source. Huggins estimates the relative motion of Sirius to be 29.4 miles (46 km) per second away from the Earth, but cannot detect any motion for any of the nebulae he examines. But Huggins does not address the fact that the distance of a light source changes the width and position of spectral lines (relative to the center node). This change in position does not represent a change in frequency (or color) of a spectral line.	(Tulse Hill)London, England
132 YBN [06/23/1868 AD]	6252) The first practical typewriter.	Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
132 YBN [07/02/1868 AD]	3432) Ethylene, a hydrocarbon is identified in the spectra of a comet.	(Tulse Hill)London, England
132 YBN [07/02/1868 AD]	4020) The heat of stars is measured using a thermopile.	(Tulse Hill)London, England (presumably)
132 YBN [11/23/1868 AD]	3648) The first permanent color photograph is created by Louis Ducos du Hauron by superimposing (and fastening together) 3 different colored transparent images.	?, France
132 YBN [1868 AD]	3418) Bacteria are isolated from distinct diseases.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
132 YBN [1868 AD]	3447) The new element helium is named from an unrecognized yellow spectral line in the light of the Sun's chromosphere (a continuous gaseous medium around the Sun).	(?), India
131 YBN [01/15/1869 AD]	3315) The theory that the sky is blue because small particles reflect shorter blue light more than longer wavelengths.	(Royal Institution) London, England
131 YBN [01/30/1869 AD]	4839) The theory that brain-waves radiating from the brain might allow images of thought to be captured on a photograph.	London, England (presumably)
131 YBN [03/06/1869 AD]	3703) A periodic table of elements is published by Dmitri Mendeléev (meNDelAeF).	(University of St. Petersburg) St. Petersburg, Russia
131 YBN [03/17/1869 AD]	3495) That a spectral emission line becomes thicker because of increased pressure is observed.	(Royal College) London, England
131 YBN [05/??/1869 AD]	3147) The spectrum of the Aurora Borealis is examined and found to have mainly one bright line not belonging to any known simple or compound gases.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden
131 YBN [1869 AD]	3127) The "critical temperature" of a gas is defined as the temperature above which no increase in pressure will liquefy the gas.	(Queen's College) Belfast, Ireland
131 YBN [1869 AD]	3761) The first practical artificial plastic, Celluloid, is created. Celluloid is a transparent, colorless, synthetic plastic created by heating a mixture of nitrocellulose, camphor, and alcohol under pressure until the mold.	Albany, NY, USA
130 YBN [04/21/1870 AD]	3571) Multiple bonds between two atoms are described.	(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia
130 YBN [04/28/1870 AD]	3766) That specific parts of the cerebrum can contract certain muscles is shown by direct electrical stimulation of the cerebrum of dogs. This is the first map of the brain that connects brain location to function.	(University of Berlin?) Berlin, Germany
130 YBN [1870 AD]	2687) A communication cable connects Asia and Australia.
130 YBN [1870 AD]	3778) The first synthetic perfume in created (coumarin).	(Perkin factory) Greenford Green, England (presumably)
129 YBN [01/07/1871 AD]	3704) A periodic table is published by Mendeleev (meNDelAeF) with spaces that represent elements not found yet.	(University of St. Petersburg) St. Petersburg, Russia
129 YBN [08/??/1871 AD]	3814) The rotational velocity of the Sun is determined from the Doppler shift of a curved spectral emission line from a solar flare.	(private observatory) Bothkamp, Germany
129 YBN [09/08/1871 AD]	3113) A gelatin photographic emulsion.	Woolston, Southhampton, England
129 YBN [09/11/1871 AD]	6607) The spectrum of lightning is found to include emission spectral lines found in air.	(private observatory) Bothkamp, Germany
129 YBN [11/17/1871 AD]	4160) A telescope filled with water which shows no change in the aberration of light from a star due to light slowing down in a denser medium, which casts doubts on the theory that aberration is due to the speed of light.	Greenwich, England
129 YBN [12/07/1871 AD]	3876) The thermal (or infrared) spectrum from sunlight and from ignited lime is determined using a thermopile.	(Helmholtz Lab, U of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany
129 YBN [1871 AD]	2661) The start of binary digital communication: communication using only a series of on or off values. This is the Baudot {BxDO} code which uses a 5 bit code by Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot. The Baudot code will replace Morse Code by the mid 1900s.	France
129 YBN [1871 AD]	2686) The first telegraph wire in China.	Yokohama, Japan
129 YBN [1871 AD]	3355) The speed of electromagnetic induction is proven to be at least 314,400 meters/second.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
128 YBN [06/07/1872 AD]	6624) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is produced. PVC is a synthetic resin made from the polymerization of vinyl chloride. PVC will become second only to polyethylene among the plastics in production and consumption. But commercial application of the plastic is at first limited by its extreme rigidity.	(for doctorate at University of Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany
128 YBN [1872 AD]	1249) The first "binder", a machine that automatically binds grain with a wire into bundles.	Janesville, Wisconsin, USA
128 YBN [1872 AD]	3197) The compound "aldol" is discovered, which is both an alcohol and aldehyde in containing both an alcohol group (-OH) and an aldehyde group (-CHO).	(Ecole de Médicine, School of Medicine) Paris, France
128 YBN [1872 AD]	3317) Dust in air is shown to contain microorganisms.	(Royal Institution) London, England
128 YBN [1872 AD]	3566) Bacteria are classified into genera and species.	(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)
128 YBN [1872 AD]	3909) Bacteria are grown (or cultured) outside of the body. Pigmented bacteria are grown on slices of potato in a moist environment by German biologist Joseph Schröter.	(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)
128 YBN [1872 AD]	3911) Gelatin is used to grow and isolate fungi colonies.	Berlin, Germany
127 YBN [02/12/1873 AD]	3336) Selenium is found to convert light into electricity (the photoelectric effect).	Valentia, Ireland
127 YBN [1873 AD]	3758) The van der Waals equation improves the accuracy of the Pressure times Volume divided by Temperature = a constant gas law of Boyle and Charles by including the size of the gas molecules and the attractive forces between the gas molecules.	(University of Leyden) Leyden, Netherlands
127 YBN [1873 AD]	3863) Silver nitrate as a stain allows neurons to be seen clearly.	(Home for Incurables) Abbiategrasso, Italy
127 YBN [1873 AD]	3931) Set theory is founded; deals with well-defined collections of objects, which may or may not be of a mathematical nature, such as numbers or functions).	(University of Halle) Halle, Germany
127 YBN [1873 AD]	3950) A meter that can measure a voltage as small as a thousandth of a volt.	University of Heidelberg, Germany
127 YBN [1873 AD]	4233) The bacterium responsible for leprosy is identified.	Norway
126 YBN [09/05/1874 AD]	4134) The four valences of carbon are shown not to form a square, but a three dimensional tetrahedron, which create mirror image compounds that rotate a plane of polarized light.	(University of Utrecht) Utrecht, Netherlands
126 YBN [11/23/1874 AD]	4087) The crystal diode (or rectifier) is invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun. Metal sulfide crystals are found to transmit electricity more easily in one direction than in the other, and this will later be used to convert an alternating current into a direct current. Braun will find in 1874 that this effect is most easily seen if at at least one electrode is small.	(Würzburg University) Würzburg, Germany
126 YBN [12/12/1874 AD]	3872) The basis of color photography: dye in a photographic emulsion allows specific colors of light (including infrared) to be photographed, because the dyes allow only those specific colors to reach the light sensitive silver compound.	(Astrophysical observatory) Potsdam, Germany
126 YBN [1874 AD]	3780) The element gallium {GaLEuM} is identified by spectroscopy.	(home lab) Cognac, France (presumably)
125 YBN [03/20/1875 AD]	3674) An improved vacuum tube pump in which the air pressure is 1/75,000 that in a Geissler tube.	(private lab) London, England(presumably)
125 YBN [04/27/1875 AD]	3851) Electrical stimulation and physical destruction of various portions of the brain of living monkeys is shown to cause blindness, deafness, the loss of sense of touch, smell, and taste, and the need to scratch.	(King's College Hospital and Medical School) London, England
125 YBN [08/28/1875 AD]	5575) The first direct neuron reading: changes in electric current are measured on the brains of rabbits and monkeys during chewing, and in response to light shown in the eyes by Dr. Richard Caton.	Liverpool, England
125 YBN [1875 AD]	3567) Bacterial spores and their survival after being in boiling water are described.	(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)
124 YBN [02/14/1876 AD]	4036) Alexander Graham Bell's telephone.	Salem, Massachusetts, USA
124 YBN [02/15/1876 AD]	4065) A rapidly rotating static electricity is shown to act like an electric current by producing a magnetic field.	(working for Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore) (University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
124 YBN [05/01/1876 AD]	3656) The theory that electric current conduction in water is due, not by conduction by the water, but by dissolved particles, such as sodium ions, and the high conductivity of acids is explained by the fact that hydrogen is one of their migrating components.	(University of Würzburg) Würzburg, Germany
124 YBN [1876 AD]	3669) A four-stroke gas engine; there are four strokes of the piston for each ignition.	(Gasmotoren-Frabrik Deutz AG) Deutz, Cologne, Germany
124 YBN [1876 AD]	3819) The first practical refrigerator is built by Karl Paul Gottfried von Linde (liNDu) using liquid ammonia as a coolant.	(Technische Hochschule) Munich, Germany
124 YBN [1876 AD]	3972) Liquid crystals are discovered, molecules that have a state of organization in between solid and liquid, and are the basis of all liquid crystal display screens.	University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, Alsace, Germany(now in France)
124 YBN [1876 AD]	4094) The luminescence produced at the cathode in an evacuated tube (under high voltage/electric potential) is named "Cathode-rays", shown to be emitted perpendicularly to the cathode surface, and to cast sharp shadows.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
123 YBN [03/05/1877 AD]	3756) The purple pigment (rhodopsin) in the retina is shown to turn a yellowish color when exposed to light. Using this effect, a rabbit retina is removed, the changed dyes fixed with chemicals, and a permanent picture (an "optogram") is made showing the last image the rabbit saw (of a barred window).	(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany
123 YBN [04/27/1877 AD]	3994) The "carbon microphone", which varies electric current in proportion to the pressure caused by sound.	(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey, USA
123 YBN [06/??/1877 AD]	3879) Both red and violet rays are found to oxidize organic compounds (continuously increasing from red to violet), while red rays generally oxidize and violet rays reduce inorganic compounds. Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is combined with a compound, and reduction is a chemical reaction where hydrogen is combined with a compound or oxygen is removed.	(Sorbonne laboratory) Paris, France (verify)
123 YBN [08/11/1877 AD]	3584) The smaller outer moon of Mars, Deimos is identified..	(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC, USA
123 YBN [08/17/1877 AD]	3585) A second moon of Mars is identified; the larger inner, Phobos.	(Naval Observatory) Washington, DC, USA
123 YBN [12/02/1877 AD]	3688) Oxygen is liquefied.	(father's ironworks) Chatillon, France
123 YBN [12/24/1877 AD]	4002) A sound recording is played back out loud by Thomas Alva Edison. Edison invents a phonograph which not only records sound but allows the recorded sound to be played back and heard out loud.	(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey, USA
123 YBN [1877 AD]	3138) The first gem-quality crystals (emeralds) of reasonable size are synthesized.	(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France
123 YBN [1877 AD]	3342) A sequence of high speed photographs that show movement is captured.	Sacramento, CA, USA
123 YBN [1877 AD]	3928) That certain diseases are transmitted by insects is proven (a mosquito is shown to transmit a parasite that causes elephantiasis).	Hong Kong (presumably)
123 YBN [1877 AD]	3934) The phenomenon of "osmosis" is fully studied; the diffusion of water or other solvents through a semipermeable membrane which blocks the passage of dissolved substances (solutes).
123 YBN [1877 AD]	4039) Telephone wires are connected to individual homes.	Boston and New York, USA
123 YBN [1877 AD]	4056) A glider is flown around 80 feet (24 meters).	Derwitz/Krilow (near Potsdam), Germany
122 YBN [04/??/1878 AD]	4275) Atoms and molecules are modeled using floating magnets.	Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA
122 YBN [07/22/1878 AD]	3949) The theory that friction between the ocean and land cause the Earth to slow its speed of rotation, and to decrease its angular momentum.	(Trinity College) Cambridge, England
122 YBN [08/01/1878 AD]	4019) A heat sensor more sensitive than a thermopile based on the expansion and contraction of a thin strip of hard rubber by heat.	(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey, USA
122 YBN [10/10/1878 AD]	3878) The ultra-violet spectra of various substances is photographed.	(King's College and Institute of Chemistry) London, England
122 YBN [1878 AD]	3188) The element yterrbium (Yb).	(University of Geneva) Geneva, Switzerland
122 YBN [1878 AD]	3189) The element gadolinium.	(University of Geneva) Geneva, Switzerland
122 YBN [1878 AD]	3576) A practical electric light bulb is constructed by Joseph Wilson Swan.	Newcastle, England (presumably)
122 YBN [1878 AD]	3692) Decompression sickness is understood to be caused when high external pressures force large quantities of atmospheric nitrogen to dissolve in the blood which during rapid decompression form gas bubbles that obstruct capillaries.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
122 YBN [1878 AD]	3716) The bolometer, a heat sensor based on the change in resistance from two pieces of metal balanced with a Wheatstone bridge.	(Western University of Pennsylvania now the University of Pittsburg) Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, USA (presumably)
122 YBN [1878 AD]	3790) Synthetic fabric. The first synthetic silk (rayon) is invented by Louis Bernigaud, comte de Chardonnet (soRDOnA). Chardonnet produces fibers by forcing (extruding) solutions of cellulose nitrate through very tiny holes in glass and allowing the solvent to evaporate.	Paris, France (presumably)
121 YBN [03/24/1879 AD]	3797) The element scandium is identified spectroscopically.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden.
121 YBN [04/05/1879 AD]	4059) Molecules of bromine and iodine are shown to be diatomic; breaking into single atoms on heating as shown by the density of their vapors being reduced by two-thirds of their normal values.	(University of Stuttgart), Stuttgart, Germany (presumably)
121 YBN [05/15/1879 AD]	3847) That the ultra-violet spectrum of the Sun as seen on Earth abruptly stops at 300 nanometers, and that this cut-off wavelength increases as the length of the path of sunlight increases indicates that ultraviolet light is absorbed inside the atmosphere of Earth.	Paris, France
121 YBN [07/22/1879 AD]	3690) A ship reaches the Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic Ocean using a Northeast Passage which penetrates the seas north of Asia.	Port Clarence, Alaska
121 YBN [11/22/1879 AD]	5653) The Hall effect is discovered: the generation of an electric potential perpendicular to both an electric current and an external magnetic field applied at right angles to the current.	(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore, Maryland, USA
121 YBN [1879 AD]	3782) The element samarium is identified using spectroscopy.	(home lab) Cognac, France (presumably)
121 YBN [1879 AD]	3796) The elements thulium and holmium are identified using spectroscopy.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden.
121 YBN [1879 AD]	3853) Chromosomes are identified in the nucleus of cells using dyes.	(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany
121 YBN [1879 AD]	3958) Saccharin, the first commercially available artificial sweetener.	Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
121 YBN [1879 AD]	4183) Nucleic acids are identified.	(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg , Germany
121 YBN [1879 AD]	4231) The bacteria that causes gonorrhea is identified.	(Oskar Simon’s clinic) Breslau, Germany
120 YBN [02/09/1880 AD]	3420) A successful vaccine is created by growing the agent of disease on an artificial media to create a milder form.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
120 YBN [05/25/1880 AD]	6619) Variable stars are categorized. Cepheid {SeFEiD} variable stars are defined as variable stars that have a short and regular period of luminosity.	Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
120 YBN [06/03/1880 AD]	4038) Sound is sent and received using light particles by Alexander Graham Bell. The photophone projects the voice through an instrument toward a mirror which vibrates, and sunlight directed into the mirror projects the vibrations to a receiver where the vibrations are transformed back into sound.	(top of Franklin School) Washington, D. C., USA
120 YBN [09/20/1880 AD]	3845) Ozone is liquefied, liquid ozone is found to be colored sky blue, and ozone in found to be an explosive gas.	(Academy of Sciences) Paris, France
120 YBN [09/??/1880 AD]	3759) Van Der Waals simplifies his 1873 equation for gases in which no new constants are necessarily, by using the temperature, pressure, and volume of a gas at its critical point (where the gas and liquid become equal in density and cannot be distinguished from each other).	(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam, Netherlands
120 YBN [11/23/1880 AD]	3948) The cause of malaria is found to be a protist, which shows that disease can be caused by a protist and not only by a bacterium.	(Académie de Médecine) Paris, France
120 YBN [12/12/1880 AD]	3846) The absorption spectrum of ozone is found to match absorption bands in the solar spectrum as seen on Earth and ozone is thought to have a role in the color blue of the sky of Earth.	(Academy of Sciences) Paris, France
120 YBN [1880 AD]	3768) The physical and chemical properties of 15,000 organic compounds are compiled and published.	(University of St. Petersburg) St. Petersburg, Russia
120 YBN [1880 AD]	4095) That cathode rays can be bent by magnetic fields is shown.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
120 YBN [1880 AD]	4348) Piezoelectricity {PIEZOeleKTriSiTE or PEZO- or PEAZO-} is discovered by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie: when pressure is applied to certain crystals, an electric potential is created.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
120 YBN [1880 AD]	5839) An artificial muscle is made by Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN or rNTGeN) when he measures the physical contraction of rubber under electric potential. Practical artificial muscles will not be used in consumer products for over 130 years.	(University of Giessen) Giessen, Germany
120 YBN [1880 AD]	6577) Slavery is outlawed in most major nations.
119 YBN [01/05/1881 AD]	3608) The electronic camera and electronic image. An image is captured and sent electronically by Shelford Bidwell.	London, England (presumably)
119 YBN [02/05/1881 AD]	3877) The infrared spectrum of various substances is photographed.	(Science and Art Department) South Kensington, England
119 YBN [02/??/1881 AD]	3421) A successful vaccine for anthrax is created by gently heating the anthrax causing bacteria.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
119 YBN [02/??/1881 AD]	3422) A successful vaccine for rabies is created.	(École Normale Supérieure) Paris, France
119 YBN [12/15/1881 AD]	3738) Certain spectrum lines are found to become broader when an element is heated.	(Solar Physics Observatory) South Kensington, England
119 YBN [1881 AD]	4040) A metal detector.	(Volta Lab) Washington, District of Columbia, USA
119 YBN [1881 AD]	4157) The Michelson experiment: Light is found to have the same speed in any direction horizontal to the Earth; this causes doubt about the existence of an aether medium and about the wave theory for light. An interferometer splits a beam of monochromatic light with a glass plate into two directions at a right angle to each other, and reflects them back together to detect interference. If the Earth moves relative to a stationary aether medium, the beam traveling in the direction of the motion of Earth relative to the aether will take less time, and will cause interference, but no interference is observed.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
119 YBN [1881 AD]	4349) Inverse piezoelectricity is proven by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie: when an electric potential is applied to certain crystals, the crystal vibrates at a regular rate.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
119 YBN [1881 AD]	6646)	France
118 YBN [01/12/1882 AD]	4011) The first central electricity station and distribution of electricity to houses (for electric lighting) by Thomas Edison in London.	(57 Holborn Viaduct) London, England
118 YBN [03/24/1882 AD]	3620) The first invisible frequency light particle communication by Amos Emerson Dolbear. The first radio communication. The sending and receiving of a message using light particles by electrical induction (also known as "electric waves", "electric radiation", and simply "radio", but may just be the photoelectric effect).	(employed at Tuft's College) Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA
118 YBN [03/24/1882 AD]	3903) The bacteria that causes tuberculosis is identified.	(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin, Germany
118 YBN [05/25/1882 AD]	4066) Concave gratings are invented which eliminate the need for a telescope to view the spectrum.	(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore, Maryland, USA
118 YBN [09/04/1882 AD]	4014) The first permanent commercial central electrical system on Earth.	(Edison Electric illuminating Company, 255 and 257 Pearl Street), New York City, NY, USA
118 YBN [1882 AD]	3528) The heat emitted or absorbed by 3,500 different chemical reactions is published.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
118 YBN [1882 AD]	3588) A series of high speed photographs is captured with a single instrument.	(College de France) Paris, France (presumably)
118 YBN [1882 AD]	3854) Mitosis is described and named.	(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany
118 YBN [1882 AD]	3908) Agar is used to make a solid media on which to grow and isolate organisms.	(Imperial Department of Health) Berlin, Germany
118 YBN [1882 AD]	3947) White blood cells are identified and their role of destroying foreign objects in the immune system of animals is recognized.	(In his own private laboratory) Messina, Italy
118 YBN [1882 AD]	4805) The word "telepathy" is used to describe communication by thought.	London, England
117 YBN [01/??/1883 AD]	3733) That small amounts of potassium and calcium added to a salt-water (sodium chloride) solution will keep heart cells, and the heart itself beating longer, in addition to keeping other isolated organs functioning for a longer time is recognized.	(University College Hospital) London, England
117 YBN [03/05/1883 AD]	3880) That infrared light is absorbed by the atmosphere of Earth, and that some of this absorption is due to water is recognized.	(Science and Art Department) South Kensington, England
117 YBN [03/??/1883 AD]	4070) A simple method for identifying nitrogen in molecules is found: adding them to sulfuric acid, which causes nitrogen to be released in the form of ammonia; the quantity of the ammonia can then easily be measured.	(laboratory of brewer Carl Jacobsen) Kopenhagen, Denmark
117 YBN [06/06/1883 AD]	4339) Theory of ionic dissociation, how molecules that are electrolytes separate in a liquid to form two or more charged "ions".	(Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden
117 YBN [11/15/1883 AD]	4016) The "Edison effect", which is now explained as the emission of electrons from a hot to a cold electrode. Edison seals a metal wire into a light bulb near the hot filament and finds that the amount of electricity that flows from the hot filament to the metal wire is proportional to the degree of incandescence of the filament.	(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey, USA
117 YBN [1883 AD]	3710) The first small direct-acting gasoline engine which rotates at high speeds.	(factory) Stuttgart, Germany
117 YBN [1883 AD]	3794) The first fully automatic machine gun; a gun that uses the recoil of the barrel to eject the empty cartridge and reload the chamber. This gun can fire 10 projectiles a second.	(Maxim's shop, Hatton Garden) London, England
117 YBN [1883 AD]	3815) The first spectroscopic star catalog. This catalog lists the spectra of 4051 stars.	(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam) Potsdam, Germany
117 YBN [1883 AD]	3916) Meiosis is identified.	(University of Liege) Liege, Belgium
116 YBN [01/06/1884 AD]	3621) The mechanical television: a rotating disk with tiny holes that sequentially pass successfully over a picture allows an image to be converted to electricity and back to light which is projected onto a display).	Berlin, Germany
116 YBN [01/11/1884 AD]	3859) The parallax of Southern Hemisphere stars is determined.	(Royal Observatory) Cape of Good Hope, Africa
116 YBN [03/07/1884 AD]	4209) Photo-sensitized gelatin coated paper photographic film.	(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester, NY, USA
116 YBN [04/23/1884 AD]	4206) The first practical steam turbine, a steam engine that uses steam to turn a wheel with blades around the rim directly.	(Clarke, Chapman and Company) Gateshead, England
116 YBN [1884 AD]	3398) High pitch whistles are invented and used to measure the threshold of human hearing to be 18khz. A system of fingerprinting is established.	London, England
116 YBN [1884 AD]	4080) The bacterium that causes typhoid fever is identified and cultured.	(Imperial Health Office) Berlin, Germany
116 YBN [1884 AD]	4131) The bacterium that causes diphtheria is identified and that some animals have a natural immunity to diptheria is proven.	(Imperial Health Office) Berlin, Germany
116 YBN [1884 AD]	4182) The "Gram stain" method which stains certain kinds of bacteria.	(lab of microbiologist Karl Friedländer ) Berlin, Germany
116 YBN [1884 AD]	4315) The first use of a local anesthetic: (a drug that stops the conduction of impulses in sensory nerves in the region where it is applied); cocaine.	(General Hospital in Vienna) Vienna, Austria
115 YBN [01/30/1885 AD]	3500) The Balmer series is discovered, a simple mathematical formula that gives the wavelengths of the spectral lines of hydrogen.	(Secondary School) Basel, Switzerland
115 YBN [07/??/1885 AD]	3827) That the electrical resistance of various metals is decreased with a decrease of temperature is observed.	(father's ironworks) Chatillon, France (presumably)
115 YBN [1885 AD]	3711) The first practical gasoline (or petrol) engine and the first gasoline motor boat.	(factory) Stuttgart, Germany
115 YBN [1885 AD]	3712) The first motorbike.	(factory) Stuttgart, Germany
115 YBN [1885 AD]	4329) The elements praseodymium (PrAZEODiMEuM) and neodymium (nEODiMEuM) are identified.	(University of Vienna) Vienna
115 YBN [1885 AD]	4461) Spectral emission lines are observed to widen when subjected to an electromagnetic field.	(Royal Observatory of Brusells) Bruselles, Belgium
115 YBN [1885 AD]	6604) The first steel-framed building and skyscraper, the Home Insurance Company Building in Chicago.	Chicago, Illinois, USA
114 YBN [02/23/1886 AD]	4431) A low cost method of producing pure aluminum metal is discovered: aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (a mineral), aluminum is then isolated using carbon electrodes by electrolysis.	(Oberlin (Ohio) College Hall) Oberlin, Ohio, USA
114 YBN [06/26/1886 AD]	4139) The element fluorine is isolated, as a gas.	(École Supérieure de Pharmacie) Paris, France
114 YBN [07/27/1886 AD]	4096) Positively charged ion beams are discovered ("Kanalstrahlen" or "channel rays") by Eugen Goldstein (GOLTsTIN). Goldstein (GOLTsTIN) uses a perforated cathode and finds that there are rays going through the channels in the direction opposite to that of the cathode rays. This is evidence that electricity can be both two fluids and a single fluid.	(University of Berlin - verify) Berlin, Germany
114 YBN [1886 AD]	3625) "Raoult's law": that the changes in certain related properties of a liquid (for example vapour pressure, boiling point, or freezing point) that occur when a substance is dissolved in the liquid are proportional to the number of molecules of dissolved substance (solute) present for a given quantity of solvent molecules which makes possible determining the molecular (mass) of dissolved substances.	(University of Grenoble) Grenoble, France
114 YBN [1886 AD]	3632) That certain leguminous plants can make use of atmospheric nitrogen is found.	Anhalt-Bernburg, Germany
114 YBN [1886 AD]	3741) The idea that stars with increasing temperature should be distinguished from stars with decreasing temperature.	(Solar Physics Observatory) South Kensington, England (presumably)
114 YBN [1886 AD]	3783) The element Dysprosium {DiS-PrO-SE-uM} is identified using spectroscopy.	(home lab) Cognac, France (presumably)
114 YBN [1886 AD]	3786) The element germanium is identified and isolated .	(Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg, Germany
114 YBN [1886 AD]	3799) A book examining sexuality is published.	Graz, Austria
113 YBN [03/04/1887 AD]	3713) The gasoline internal combustion engine car is built by Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler (DIMlR) by putting his engine in a stagecoach. This vehicle is capable of a top speed of 18 kilometers (11 miles) per hour.	(factory) Stuttgart, Germany
113 YBN [03/??/1887 AD]	4285) The phenomenon of electrical resonance is discovered by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (this allows specific frequencies of light to be singled out which improves radio communication). Hertz shows how electrical oscillations in one circuit, through electrical induction, can excite the same electrical oscillations to flow (causing a spark) in a second unconnected distant circuit most effectively, by changing the capacitance and inductance of each circuit until a resonance is observed.	(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany
113 YBN [05/02/1887 AD]	3762) Plastic photographic film.	Newark, New Jersey
113 YBN [05/21/1887 AD]	4416) A practical electric arc furnace, a device that heats a substance from one or both poles of an electric arc.	(Societe Electro Metallurgique Francaise) Froges, Isere, France (presumably)
113 YBN [05/??/1887 AD]	4286) That ultraviolet light causes more current to flow on a metal electrode than lower frequencies of light is found. In addition, electrical induction is shown to be propagated in straight lines like light (casting a shadow), to be reflected from polished surfaces, refracted with a refrangibility much greater than that of violet rays of light, and to be non-electrical, since both non-conducting obstacles such as glass and paraffin screens and conducting metal plates can prevent a spark in the secondary coil.	(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany
113 YBN [09/26/1887 AD]	4112) The grammophone, a sound recording and playing device in which the needle vibrates from side to side as opposed to up and down.	(own lab) Washington, DC, USA
113 YBN [10/12/1887 AD]	4245) The alternating current electric motor is invented by Nikola Tesla. Tesla's alternating current motor (or induction motor) uses an alternating or sinusoidal current and also serves as an alternating current generator (or dynamo) producing alternating current (when mechanically turned).	(Tesla's private lab) New York City, NY, USA|(earlier claim of)Strasbourg, France
113 YBN [11/07/1887 AD]	4114) A flat disk sound recording device.	(own lab) Washington, DC, USA
113 YBN [1887 AD]	3739) The theory that subatomic particles produce spectra.	(Solar Physics Observatory) South Kensington, England (presumably)
113 YBN [1887 AD]	3960) That the number of chromosomes in cells is constant, and that each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in their cells is recognized.	University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
113 YBN [1887 AD]	4224) That gases are electrified by incandescent bodies is found.	(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel, Germany
113 YBN [1887 AD]	4369) The electricity of a heart beat is measured and recorded by Dr. Augustus Waller. Waller measures the electric potentials of the heart muscle, finds them to coincide with each heart muscle contraction, and publishes the first electrocardiograph images.	(St. Mary's Hospital) London, England
112 YBN [01/10/1888 AD]	4023) Perforated paper film is played on a sprocket-wheeled projector.	New York City, NY, USA (presumably)
112 YBN [02/02/1888 AD]	4288) Light interference between two radio sources is demonstrated and electrical induction is confirmed to have the speed of light by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. Hertz finds that the velocity of electricity in air is faster than the speed of electricity in wire and measures the wavelength (or particle interval) of a radio emitter to be 2.8 meters - much larger than the wavelength (or interval) for visible light.	(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany
112 YBN [02/23/1888 AD]	3817) The radial motions of fifty one bright stars are measured using the Doppler effect and the change in position between spectral lines of the stars and a terrestrial source.	(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam) Potsdam, Germany
112 YBN [09/08/1888 AD]	6260) A magnetic recording device is designed.	Bridgeton, New Jersey, USA
112 YBN [09/??/1888 AD]	3833) That compounds and the elements they are composed of can absorb different frequencies of light is demonstrated by the fact that water is transparent to ultra-violet rays for which oxygen is opaque.	(Royal Institution) London, England
112 YBN [12/13/1888 AD]	4291) That radio can be focused and polarized is proven by Heinrich Hertz.	(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany
112 YBN [1888 AD]	3745) The name "chromosome" is given.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
112 YBN [1888 AD]	3801) A pressure of 3,000 atmospheres is obtained.	(faculte Libre des Sciences of Lyons) Lyons, France
112 YBN [1888 AD]	3915) That the sex (or germ) cells in angiosperms, like those in animals, have only half the number of chromosomes than cells in the rest of the body have is recognized.	(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
112 YBN [1888 AD]	4025) Moving images are captured and stored onto rolls of sensitized paper.	(College de France) Paris, France (presumably)
112 YBN [1888 AD]	4108) Bacteria that live in the nodules of leguminous plants that convert atmospheric nitrogen into molecules with nitrogen in a form that plants can use are identified.	(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft, Netherlands
112 YBN [1888 AD]	4118) The theory that visible light can be produced from electrical oscillation.	(University College) Liverpool, England
112 YBN [1888 AD]	4210) The first consumer camera, which brings the ability to capture photos to average people.	(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester, NY, USA (presumably)
112 YBN [1888 AD]	4350) A piezoelectric balance-can measure very small quantities of electricity.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
111 YBN [02/16/1889 AD]	211) Electricity is used to restart a heart beating by Dr. John A McWilliam.	(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen, Scotland
111 YBN [03/12/1889 AD]	6255) An automatic telephone exchange that allows people to connect their own phone calls is invented by Almon Strowger.	Kansas City, Missouri, USA
111 YBN [03/14/1889 AD]	3844) That ozone is highly fluorescent which provides an alternative explanation for the blue color of the sky of Earth is shown.	(Royal College of Science) Dublin, Ireland
111 YBN [05/02/1889 AD]	4117) The theory that matter contracts depending on its velocity relative to the speed of light is used by George Fitzgerald to explain the Michelson experiment while preserving the theory of an aether medium for light. Fitzgerald suggests, as an explanation for the Michelson-Morley experiment, that "the length of material bodies changes, according as they are moving through the ether or across it, by an amount depending on the square of the ratio of their velocity to that of light.".	Dublin, Ireland
111 YBN [06/03/1889 AD]	4834) The first commercial wireless telegraph message.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland
111 YBN [06/21/1889 AD]	4021) The motion picture camera and projector. Moving images are captured, stored on plastic film, and projected onto a screen, played together with sound from a phonograph.	(Piccadilly) London, England
111 YBN [06/21/1889 AD]	4024) The theory that a picture seen by the eye can be captured from phosphorescence.	(London and Provincial Photographic Association) London, England
111 YBN [11/12/1889 AD]	3966) The first "spectroscopic binary" star is identified and observed to have a period of rotation of 104 days. A spectroscopic binary is two stars that appear as one, but over time a spectral line appears to double because of change in relative velocity as one star moves toward the Earth and the other star moves away.	Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
111 YBN [11/28/1889 AD]	3818) The first planet of another star is detected by the oscillation of a spectral line. The variation in the light of Algol is shown to be due to the partial eclipse of its light by a dark satellite because the spectral lines shift from blue to red over a regular period of time in sync with the variation in the visible light of Algol. Unlike spectroscopic binary stars, these spectra only show one oscillating spectral line because the light from the companion is too dim to see.	(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam) Potsdam, Germany
111 YBN [1889 AD]	3549) The first practical smokeless explosive powder, cordite is invented.	London, England (presumably)
111 YBN [1889 AD]	3701) That many generations of mice with their tail cut off still produce mice with tails is evidence against the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics.	(University of Freiburg) Freiburg, Germany
111 YBN [1889 AD]	4128) The neuron theory is established: that the entire nervous system is made of cells that nowhere touch each other.	(University of Barcelona) Barcelona, Spain
111 YBN [1889 AD]	4277) Bacteria are grown on a solid media surrounded by a hydrogen atmosphere.	(Robert Koch's laboratory) Berlin, Germany
111 YBN [1889 AD]	4396) Phosphorescence is shown to be caused by the presence of very small quantities of copper, bismuth, or manganese in what were previously thought to be pure alkaline earth sulfides (a sulfide is a chemical compound containing sulfur and one other element or sulfur and a radical).	(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany
110 YBN [02/??/1890 AD]	4223) A simple equation that describes the spectral lines for various elements.	(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden
110 YBN [09/04/1890 AD]	4301) The motion of nebulae such as those of Orion are measured and shown to be similar to those of the stars which implies that these nebulae are part of the Milky Way Galaxy.	(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA, USA
110 YBN [11/15/1890 AD]	3243) The electric machine gun.	New York City, NY, USA
110 YBN [12/26/1890 AD]	4123) A method of using hot water under pressure to melt underground sulfur deposits which increases the supply of sulfur.	Cleveland, Ohio, USA
110 YBN [1890 AD]	4200) That an animal can be given passive (or short lived) immunity against tetanus (also known as lockjaw) by injecting the animal with the blood serum of another animal infected with the disease is found.	(Robert Koch Institute of Hygiene) Berlin, Germany
110 YBN [1890 AD]	4487) New optically active compounds are synthesized around such metals as cobalt, chromium and rhodium.	(Polytechnikum) Zurich, Switzerland
109 YBN [03/17/1891 AD]	3610) "Halftone" images (images with more shades than black and white) are sent electronically.	Cleveland, Ohio, USA
109 YBN [03/26/1891 AD]	3522) The suggestion that the minimum electric charge should be called an "electron".	(Queen's University) Dublin, Ireland
109 YBN [04/25/1891 AD]	4247) The "Tesla coil", a simple circuit that uses 2 transformers, a capacitor and spark gap to produce very high frequency current at very high voltage.	(Tesla's private lab) New York City, NY, USA
109 YBN [05/20/1891 AD]	4018) The first practical motion picture camera and projector, the "Kinetoscope".	(private lab) West Orange, New Jersey, USA
109 YBN [12/10/1891 AD]	3822) Liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are shown to be attracted to both poles of a magnet.	(Royal Institution) London, England (presumably)
109 YBN [1891 AD]	3746) Nerve cells are named "neurons".	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
109 YBN [1891 AD]	3952) The first color photographic plate.	University of Paris, Sorbonne Laboratories of Physical Research, Paris, France
109 YBN [1891 AD]	4239) Silicon carbide (an extremely hard substance) is synthesized.	(Carborundum Company) Monongahedla City, Pennsylvania, USA
109 YBN [1891 AD]	4242) Greenland is proven to be an island by reaching the previously unexplored northern coast.	Greenland
109 YBN [1891 AD]	4417) A camera and motor driven telescope which compensates for the motion of the Earth relative to distant celestial objects is used for long exposure photographs. 500 asteroids will be identified with this method, a third of all known to exist.	(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany
108 YBN [05/??/1892 AD]	4399) A jet of water passing through air is found to cause air to become negatively electrified.	(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany
108 YBN [09/03/1892 AD]	4316) The fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea is observed.	(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton, California, USA
108 YBN [1892 AD]	3700) The "germ plasm" theory of heredity; that all inherited traits come only from the chromosomes.	(University of Freiburg) Freiburg, Germany
108 YBN [1892 AD]	3823) The double-wall vacuum container is invented by James Dewar (DYUR).	(Royal Institution) London, England (presumably)
108 YBN [1892 AD]	4236) The first synthetic silk (rayon)	(Cross and Bevan's private business) New Court, Lincoln's Inn, England
108 YBN [1892 AD]	4326) The diesel engine: instead of a spark, the heat from compressing the fuel-air mixture raises the temperature of the mixture to the point where ignition happens. The diesel engine can use heavier fractions of petroleum- kerosene instead of gasoline, and so costs less and is less flammable. But the diesel engine is a large structure that can't be used in cars.	(Carle von Linde firm) Berlin, Germany
107 YBN [03/04/1893 AD]	3841) Nitrogen obtained from air is found to have a slightly higher density than nitrogen obtained from ammonium and this will lead to the discovery of the inert gases.	(Strutt Home Laboratory) Terling, England
107 YBN [04/17/1893 AD]	4161) The meter is measured in terms of a cadmium-red wavelength.	(Clark University) Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
107 YBN [04/18/1893 AD]	4393) Calculating of currents, voltages, and resistances is simplified using complex-numbers.	(Edison's company) West Orange, N.J., USA
107 YBN [1893 AD]	4379) High frequency light is found to kill bacteria.
107 YBN [1893 AD]	4449) A bolometer shows that infrared spectral emission lines are produced merely by heating a gas.	(University of Hannover) Hannover , Germany
107 YBN [1893 AD]	6610) The death rate from cholera is reduced by 70 per cent among 45 thousand people inoculated by a highly virulent strain of heat-killed cholera.	India
106 YBN [01/12/1894 AD]	4397) A cathode-ray tube is made with an air-tight thin aluminum window through which cathode rays can emerge into open air. Using this tube cathode rays are shown to ionize the air making it electrically conducting.	(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany
106 YBN [01/19/1894 AD]	3828) Magnetic strength is shown to increase with colder temperature.	(Royal Institution) London, England
106 YBN [09/??/1894 AD]	6617) The radial velocity of a Cepheid variable star is found to match its period of luminosity which suggests that a dark companion causes the variation of Cepheid stars.	Pulkowa
106 YBN [10/??/1894 AD]	4258) The speed of cathode rays is shown to be about a thousand times slower than the speed of light by Joseph John Thomson using a rotating mirror.	(Trinity College) Cambridge, England
106 YBN [1894 AD]	2657) The start of multiplexing by Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot {BxDO}: using a single wire to transmit multiple messages by only sending one character at a time while alternating between a group of messages.	France
106 YBN [1894 AD]	3144) A vacuum of 1.8 nanometers of mercury is obtained by using a metal tube instead of a glass tube which avoids the electrification of the glass by the falling mercury.	(University of Basel) Basel, Switzerland
106 YBN [1894 AD]	3913) The bacteria responsible for the bubonic plague is isolated.	Hong Kong
106 YBN [1894 AD]	4311) Sensory nerves are shown to exist in muscles; approximately one third to one half of the nerves in muscles are sensory, carrying sensation information to the brain, in order to judge the tension of a muscle and joint.	(Brown Institution Animal Hospital) London, England
106 YBN [1894 AD]	4318) The first known homo erectus fossil is found.	Java
105 YBN [01/31/1895 AD]	3842) The element Argon and the series of inert gases is identified by John Strutt, 3d Baron Rayleigh, and William Ramsay (raMZE). Rayleigh and Ramsay isolate the gas from air, and heat it using electricity in a vacuum tube to examine the spectral lines produced. The strongest lines are in positions that fit no known element, and so they know this is a new gas, which they name Argon. Since Argon combines with no element, it has a valence of zero. Rayleigh and Ramsay theorize correctly that Argon may be part of an eighth group of elements with a valence of zero.	(Own Laboratory) Terling, England
105 YBN [03/06/1895 AD]	4351) Above a certain temperature the magnetic properties of magnetic objects are shown to stop, and diamagnetism is shown to be a property of all matter.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
105 YBN [03/26/1895 AD]	4141) The element (and inert gas) helium is identified on Earth by William Ramsay (raMZE). Ramsay liberates an inert gas from Uraninite by dissolving it in sulfuric acid and finds that the spectral lines from the gas are lines that are the same as those observed emitting from the Sun earlier by Jannsen which Lockyer had named Helium.	(University College) London, England
105 YBN [04/??/1895 AD]	4032) A motion picture film projector is demonstrated publicly.	New York City, NY, USA (presumably)
105 YBN [05/29/1895 AD]	3820) A cooling feedback loop is invented. Cooled gas is reused to cool incoming gas even more. This process allows larger quantities of liquid gas to be produced.	(Munich Thermal Testing Station) Munich, Germany
105 YBN [11/05/1895 AD]	3936) X-rays are discovered by Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (ruNTGeN) (rNTGeN). Roentgen finds that radiation from a cathode ray tube can pass through very thick paper and even thin layers of metal to cause luminescence in a paper covered with barium platinocyanide. Roentgen goes on to find that the rays cannot be bent by even a strong magnetic field like cathode rays, but yet do not refract, polarize or interfere like visible light does. Roentgen also finds that these rays are absorbed by air less than cathode rays. Roentgen calls these rays "X-rays" and captures the first X-ray photographs, of the interiors of metal objects and of the bones in his wife's hand. X rays are extremely useful as a new tool in health sciences to see inside bodies.	(University of Würzburg) Würzburg, Germany
105 YBN [12/28/1895 AD]	4031) The first commercial moving picture film projector.	Paris, France (presumably)
105 YBN [1895 AD]	3991) The thyroid gland is found to have a large amount of iodine.	(University of Freiberg) Freiberg, Germany
105 YBN [1895 AD]	4302) The inner boundary of Saturn's rings are shown to rotate more quickly than the outer boundary, by using the Doppler shift of the spectral lines from the rings of Saturn. This is evidence that Saturn's rings are not solid but are made of individual objects.	(Allegheny Observatory) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
105 YBN [1895 AD]	4703) Two components of blood serum are found to be responsible for breaking bacterial cell walls (bacteriolysis): one is a heat-stable antibody found only in animals already immune to the bacterium; the other is a heat-sensitive substance found in all animals and is named "alexin" (and is now called "complement").	(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France
105 YBN [1895 AD]	4717) That cathode rays aimed at an isolated metal cylinder give the cylinder a negative charge, and when the current is reversed positive rays give the cylinder a positive charge is found by Jean Perrin {Pe-raN}. This charge can be stopped by putting the vacuum-tube between the poles of an electromagnet to deflect the rays. Perrin concludes that molecules of residual gas around the cathode are separated into positive and negative ions that move in opposite directions, and so are not like light vibrations of the ether.	(École Normale) Paris, France
105 YBN [1895 AD]	4810) A lecture on photographing the images of thought is given.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
105 YBN [1895 AD]	4826) A radio signal is sent and received over 2.4 km (1.5 miles) by Guglielmo Marconi.	(father’s estate) Bologna, Italy
104 YBN [01/24/1896 AD]	3941) X-rays are detected from an electric arc.	(City and Guilds Technical College) Finsbury, England
104 YBN [01/26/1896 AD]	3939) That x-rays can be reflected by a brass parabolic mirror but not by a glass mirror is shown.	(Reale Istituto Veneto di science) Veneto, Italy
104 YBN [02/22/1896 AD]	3940) X-rays are detected in sunlight.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA (presumably)
104 YBN [03/02/1896 AD]	4151) Radioactivity is discovered: invisible rays are detected from a uranium salt by Antoine Henri Becquerel (Be KreL). Becquerel theorizes that a fluorescent material may emit X-rays, and finds that the fluorescent chemical, potassium uranyl sulfate, emits X-rays (which appear on a photographic plate wrapped in black paper placed underneath it) even without being made fluorescent by sunlight. This identification of X-rays emitting from potassium uranyl sulfate, implies that atoms are composed of smaller particles.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
104 YBN [03/03/1896 AD]	4535) X-rays are found to greatly increase the number of drops formed when a gas is expanded beyond that necessary to produce condensation.	(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
104 YBN [03/18/1896 AD]	4276) The theory that x-rays are made of material particles.	(Private Lab) New York City, NY, USA (presumably)
104 YBN [03/25/1896 AD]	4152) The radiation emitted from uranium salts is found to be deeply penetrating and to discharge a charged electroscope in only a few minutes by Antoine Henri Becquerel. In addition, other uranium salts, although not phosphorescent, nor fluorescent, are also found to affect photographic plates.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
104 YBN [04/06/1896 AD]	4335) That all substances struck by X-rays emit secondary X-ray radiation is discovered.	(Columbia University) New York City, NY, USA
104 YBN [05/06/1896 AD]	3717) A steam engine plane achieves sustained flight.	Potomac River, Washington DC, USA
104 YBN [05/12/1896 AD]	4340) The fluoscope: a fluorescent screen that is illuminated in real-time by x-ray beams.	New York City, NY, USA (presumably)
104 YBN [05/19/1896 AD]	4715) The electric fluorescent lamp.	Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, USA
104 YBN [06/02/1896 AD]	4337) The wavelength (or interval) of radio waves is determined using a diffraction grating.	(Presidency College) Calcutta, India
104 YBN [11/??/1896 AD]	4165) A companion of Procyon is observed.	(Lick Observatory) Mt. Hamilton, California, USA
104 YBN [11/??/1896 AD]	4259) That x-rays ionize gases (cause gases to become electrical conductors) is found by Joseph John Thomson and Ernest Rutherford and offers a more convenient method to produce gas ions than an electric spark.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
104 YBN [12/10/1896 AD]	3698) The Nobel prize is created.	(dies at) San Remo, Italy|(will, and awards are in)Stockholm, Sweden
104 YBN [12/12/1896 AD]	3444) The distance spectral lines of illuminated elements shift depending on the pressure is measured.	(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.
104 YBN [12/29/1896 AD]	4759) X-rays are used to visualize gastrointestinal movements using a drink made with bismuth which is opaque to x-rays.	(Harvard Medical School) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
104 YBN [1896 AD]	4328) The disease "beriberi" is shown to be caused by poor diet. This leads to the discovery of vitamins and "beriberi" will be the first known "dietary-deficiency disease".	Javanese Medical School in Batavia (now Jakarta) (presumably)
103 YBN [04/30/1897 AD]	4260) Electricity is shown to be made of particles (the electron) by Joseph John Thomson. This is the first particle (besides light) known to be smaller than an atom. Thomson compares the deflection of cathode-ray particles by using a static electricity field and an electromagnetic field and measures the ratio of mass to electric charge to be 1000 times smaller than the mass to electric charge of an ion of hydrogen from electrolysis. Thomson adapts Prout's hypothesis that all elements are made of hydrogen atoms by substituting hydrogen with some unknown corpuscle, and concludes that cathode rays are made of small negatively charged particles which are a part of all atoms. Thomson also finds that the velocity of cathode ray corpuscles is variable depending on the potential-difference (the voltage) between the cathode and anode, which is a function of the pressure of the gas - the velocity increases as the exhaustion improves.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
103 YBN [05/27/1897 AD]	3437) That more spectral emission lines of calcium appear when a larger quantity (and density) of calcium is illuminated is demonstrated.	(Tulse Hill)London, England
103 YBN [06/04/1897 AD]	6611) A strong electromagnetic field on a spark between cadmium electrodes is shown to cause an emission line to be split into two or three components)	(University of Leiden) Amsterdam, Netherlands
103 YBN [08/20/1897 AD]	4296) That a mosquito transmits the protist that causes malaria (Plasmodium) is proven when the protist is found in the gastrointestinal tract of the Anopheles mosquito.
103 YBN [1897 AD]	3912) The bacteria that causes the bubonic plague is shown to be transmitted by a flea that infests rats.	Calcutta, India
103 YBN [1897 AD]	4088) The first electronic display (the oscilloscope) is invented by Karl Braun (BroUN). Braun uses a cathode ray tube with a mica screen inside. The screen is coated with fluorescent material so that the electron beam causes a luminous spot of light on the screen. Braun then uses varying currents in electromagnets to deflect the beam of electrons in proportion to the current which in turn moves the spot of green light on the screen so that the small variation in electric currents can be observed. This "Braun tube" is a step toward the invention of the television and computer display.	(Physikal Institute) Strassburg, France
103 YBN [1897 AD]	4093) Radio is shown to exhibit the phenomena of double refraction and absorption.	(Institute of Physics, University of Bologna) Bologna, Italy
103 YBN [1897 AD]	4222) "Nickel catalysis" is discovered: the metal Nickel serves as a catalyst to add hydrogen to various molecules which makes possible the formation of edible fats such as margarine and shortening from plant oils in large quantities at low cost.	(University of Toulouse) Toulouse, France
103 YBN [1897 AD]	4367) The fermentation of alcohol is shown to happen even with torn apart dead yeast cells.	(University of Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany
103 YBN [1897 AD]	4503) The composition of isoprene is determined and isoprene is synthesized. Isoprene is a hydrocarbon and the basic unit (the monomer) of the rubber molecule.	(University of Munich?) Munich, Germany
103 YBN [1897 AD]	4793) The theory that x-rays might be used for telepathy.	(private lab) London, England(presumably)
102 YBN [01/21/1898 AD]	4436) Positive rays are shown to be made of positively charged particles with a mass to charge ratio similar to a hydrogen ion by Wilhelm Wien (VEN). These positive particles will later be called protons. Wien determines the speed of these particles to be around 1000 times slower than the speed of light.	(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg, Germany
102 YBN [04/04/1898 AD]	6626) Polymethylene is synthesized, a polymer that is very similar to polyethylene, the largest single class of plastics.	(University of Munchen) Munich, Germany
102 YBN [04/12/1898 AD]	4352) Thorium is found to give off "uranium rays".	(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne) Paris, France
102 YBN [04/??/1898 AD]	3868) The Golgi apparatus is identified.	(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy
102 YBN [05/02/1898 AD]	4380) Thermite, the explosive mixture of a metal oxide and aluminum powder is discovered.	(Business: TH. Goldschmidt) Essen-on-the-Ruhr, Germany
102 YBN [05/10/1898 AD]	3824) Hydrogen is liquefied by James Dewar (DYUR). Dewar measures the boiling point of hydrogen as -238° C.	(Royal Institution) London, England (presumably)
102 YBN [06/03/1898 AD]	4142) The element and inert gas Krypton.	(University College) London, England
102 YBN [06/13/1898 AD]	4143) The element and inert gas Neon.	(University College) London, England
102 YBN [07/01/1898 AD]	4255) The first radio controlled vehicle; a remotely controlled boat.	(Tesla's private lab) New York City, NY, USA
102 YBN [07/18/1898 AD]	4353) The radioactive element Polonium is identified.	(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne) Paris, France
102 YBN [07/18/1898 AD]	4354) The radioactive element Radium.	(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne) Paris, France
102 YBN [09/01/1898 AD]	4731) Uranium is found to emit at least two kinds of radiation, one which is quickly absorbed that is named "alpha" radiation, and a second which has more penetrative power that is named "beta" radiation.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
102 YBN [09/08/1898 AD]	4144) The element and inert gas Xenon.	(University College) London, England
102 YBN [12/??/1898 AD]	4261) The average electric charge of the ions produced in different gases by x-rays is shown to be equal to the average electric charge of hydrogen ions, which implies that electric charge is constant for all elements with no regard to mass.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
102 YBN [1898 AD]	4109) The causal agent of tobacco mosaic disease is recognized as a completely new type of infectious agent, smaller and different than bacteria, which is named a "virus".	(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft, Netherlands
102 YBN [1898 AD]	4133) Hoof-and-mouth disease is shown to be caused by a virus; the first disease of an animal to be caused by a virus.	(University of Greifswald) Greifswald, Germany
102 YBN [1898 AD]	4228) The theory that radioactivity originates within the atom because external effects like differences in pressure and gravity do not influence the intensity of the radiation.	(Herzoglich Gymnasium) Wolfenbüttel, Germany
102 YBN [1898 AD]	4698) Electromagnetic writing and reading of data by Valdemar Poulsen (PoULSiN). Sound is recorded by varying the magnetization of tiny parts of a single wound wire sequentially in direct proportion to the electric current produced by the sound. When each part is moved past an electromagnet the sound is played out loud again in a telephone receiver. This will lead to video tapes and hard disks..	(Copenhagen Telephone Company) Copenhagen, Denmark
102 YBN [1898 AD]	4704) Red blood cells from one animal species that are injected into another species are found to be destroyed through a process (hemolysis) analogous to bacteriolysis.	(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France
101 YBN [03/03/1899 AD]	4900) The first life is saved by wireless communication from a stranded steamship.	(Marconi Company) London, England (verify)
101 YBN [03/17/1899 AD]	4319) Phoebe {FE-BE}, the ninth satellite of Saturn is identified. This is the first satellite with retrograde motion to be observed.	(Harvard College Observatory) Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
101 YBN [04/18/1899 AD]	4089) An inductively linked radio antenna increases the distance radio can be sent.	(Physics institute at Strasbourg) Strasbourg, France
101 YBN [05/11/1899 AD]	4690) Negative ions are found to require a much smaller quantity of water vapor to cause condensation than positively charged ions do.	(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
101 YBN [09/13/1899 AD]	4732) That a gas is emitted from Thorium is recognized. This gas will later be shown to be Radon. All substances touched by the positive ions created by this gas are shown to exhibit radioactivity that lasts for several days.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
101 YBN [09/??/1899 AD]	4739) That rays from radium cause radioactivity in all objects placed near them is discovered.	(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne) Paris, France
101 YBN [12/11/1899 AD]	4374) Radium rays are shown to be deflected by a magnetic field. These will be shown to be electrons (Beta rays).	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
101 YBN [12/??/1899 AD]	4265) The negative ion is found to have the same mass and charge for all gases.	(British Association Meeting) Dover, England
101 YBN [1899 AD]	3825) Hydrogen is solidified.	(Royal Institution) London, England (presumably)
101 YBN [1899 AD]	4154) That radiation from barium chloride can be deflected by a magnetic field is shown.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
101 YBN [1899 AD]	4177) The theory that mass and time change for a body depending on the motion of the body relative to the speed of light by Hendrik Lorentz {HeN-DriK oN-TON lO-reNTS}. Lorentz introduces the theory of "time", and "mass" dilation and contraction, and what will be called the Lorentz transformations. In addition, Lorentz puts forward the theory that no matter can travel faster than the speed of light.	(University of Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands
101 YBN [1899 AD]	4391) 1,628 previously unknown binary stars from the southern hemisphere are identified.	(Cape Observatory) South Africa
101 YBN [1899 AD]	4472) The pressure exerted by light is measured using very light mirrors in a vacuum.	(Moscow State University) Moscow, Russia
101 YBN [1899 AD]	4473) The mechanical pressure light exerts on gas molecules is measured.	(Moscow State University) Moscow, Russia
101 YBN [1899 AD]	4836) The radioactive element Actinium {aKTiNEuM}.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
100 YBN [01/29/1900 AD]	4155) Beta rays identified as electrons by Henri Becquerel (Be KreL). Becquerel shows that the radiation from barium chloride can be deflected by both an electric and a magnetic field, measures the charge to mass ratio, and shows that the beta particle is the same as J. J. Thomson's recently identified electron.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
100 YBN [03/26/1900 AD]	4375) The velocity of the electrons of beta rays is found to be more than half the speed of light, much higher than the electrons in cathode rays.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
100 YBN [05/14/1900 AD]	4725) The first "Grignard reagent" {rE-A-JeNT} (a reagent is a substance that, because of the reactions it causes, is used in analysis and synthesis). A Grignard reagent is an organo-metallic halide (where magnesium is the metal and the halogen is usually chlorine, bromine, or iodine) dissolved in a nonreactive solvent (typically dry ethyl ether) and is an extremely reactive compound.	(University of Lyons) Lyons, France
100 YBN [05/18/1900 AD]	4371) A non-deflected radiation more penetrative than x-rays is identified from radium which will later be named "gamma" rays.	(chemistry laboratory of the École Normale) Paris, France
100 YBN [07/02/1900 AD]	3784) The first flight of a motor-driven gas-filled airship, an aluminum blimp.	Lake Constance, Germany
100 YBN [10/19/1900 AD]	4327) "Quantum theory", the theory that all energy exists in discrete units by Max Planck.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
100 YBN [1900 AD]	4058) Radium is shown to emit a gas that is radioactive (later identified as radon).	(University of Halle) Halle, Germany
100 YBN [1900 AD]	4303) Around 120,000 galaxies (at the time called nebulae) are identified and photographed. Before this only 15,000 galaxies had been identified. This shows that spiral galaxies out number all other celestial objects in the visible universe.	(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA, USA
100 YBN [1900 AD]	4465) The cause of the disease "kala-azar" (leishmaniasis, also known as "dumdum fever") is identified as a protist (Leishmania).	(Army Medical School) Netley, England
100 YBN [1900 AD]	4470) The first known free radical, triphenylmethyl is prepared.	(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Michigan
99 YBN [01/01/1901 AD]	4252) The theory that gender is determined by the unpaired "accessory" chromosome (later called the "X" chromosome).	(University of Kansas) Kansas, USA
99 YBN [02/07/1901 AD]	4119) That yellow fever is caused by the bite of an infected mosquito and can also be transmitted by injecting blood drawn from a person suffering from yellow fever is shown.	(Pan American Medical Congress) Habana, Cuba
99 YBN [02/14/1901 AD]	6342) X-rays are shown to kill Guinea pigs by William Rollins.	Boston, Massachusetts, USA
99 YBN [10/10/1901 AD]	4148) The first synthetic protein is created when two amino acid molecules are condensed into dipeptides.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
99 YBN [12/12/1901 AD]	4832) The first radio message is sent over the Atlantic Ocean.	Poldhu, Cornwall, England to St. John’s, Newfoundland
99 YBN [12/31/1901 AD]	4120) Yellow fever is shown to be caused by a virus by Walter Reed. Yellow fever is the first disease found in humans to be attributed to a virus.	(Society of American Bacteriologists) Chicago, Illinois, USA
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4054) The theory that new species can arise as a result of mutation.	(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam, Netherlands
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4124) The lanthanide element Europium is identified and isolated.	(personal lab) Paris, France
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4156) The element uranium is identified as the radioactive portion of uranium compounds.	(École Polytechnique) Paris, France
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4221) The first pure hormone adrenalin (epinephrine) is isolated.	(his private laboratory) Clifton, New Jersey, USA
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4426) Silicones are synthesized.	(University College, Nottingham, now Nottingham University) Nottingham, England
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4515) That there are different blood types is recognized and the ABO blood group system is created.	(Pathological-Anatomical Institute) Vienna
99 YBN [1901 AD]	4705) That compliment is necessary for the antibody antigen reaction is proven because when an antibody reacts with an antigen compliment is found to be used up.	(Institut Antirabique et Bacteriologique, in 1903 the Institut Pasteur du Brabant) Brussells, Belgium
99 YBN [1901 AD]	5510) The theory that the mass of an electron increases with velocity.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
99 YBN [1901 AD]	6253) The first vacuum cleaner that uses an electric motor.
98 YBN [03/17/1902 AD]	4398) The electron velocity (and electric potential) created by the photoelectric effect is shown to depend only on the frequency of light.	(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany
98 YBN [03/28/1902 AD]	4857) The theory of the "cubic atom" by Gilbert Lewis: that atoms can be built up as cubes, which explains the cycle of 8 elements on the periodic table. All 8 vertices being occupied is thought to be the most stable form of the inert gases.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachussets, USA
98 YBN [03/??/1902 AD]	4734) Radioactivity is recognized as atomic decay in which one atom decays into another kind (also known as transmutation) by Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
98 YBN [04/28/1902 AD]	4235) The Earth atmosphere is found to be divided into two layers. Temperature drops linearly from sea level to around 11 km (7 miles), and then remains constant up to the highest point a balloon can reach.	(Observatoire de météorologie dynamique {Dynamic Meteorology Observatory})Trappes, France
98 YBN [10/17/1902 AD]	4253) That paternal and maternal chromosomes are pairs, and are the physical basis of the Mendelian laws of heredity is shown.	(Columbia University) New York City, NY, USA
98 YBN [10/27/1902 AD]	3983) The speed of x-rays is shown to be the same as the speed of light.	University of Nancy, Nancy, France (presumably)
98 YBN [11/10/1902 AD]	4736) Alpha rays are found to be deflectable by strong magnetic and electric fields in the opposite direction of cathode rays and so are positively charged bodies.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
98 YBN [11/19/1902 AD]	4738) Thorium and radium "emanation" (later shown to be isotopes of radon) are condensed at low temperatures to prove that the emanation is a gas.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
98 YBN [1902 AD]	3821) A method of separating liquid oxygen from liquid air on a large scale is developed.	(Munich Thermal Testing Station) Munich, Germany (presumably)
98 YBN [1902 AD]	4480) The heterodyne principle of converting high-frequency wireless signals to a lower frequency that is more easily controlled and amplified.	(National Electric Signalling Company) Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA
98 YBN [1902 AD]	4714) The neon lamp is developed for use in lighting and signs.	(Compagnie Francaise Houston-Thomson) Paris, France (presumably)
98 YBN [1902 AD]	4721) Optically active compounds are prepared that are centered on asymmetric atoms of sulfur, selenium, and tin.	(Municipal School of Technology) Manchester, England
98 YBN [1902 AD]	4784) A method of sewing together (suturing) the ends of blood vessels is developed.	(University of Lyons) Lyons, France
97 YBN [03/17/1903 AD]	3676) The phosphor, zinc sulfide is found to emit visible light when near radioactive material, so a zinc sulfide screen can be used in darkness to see particle emissions.	(private lab) London, England(presumably)
97 YBN [03/23/1903 AD]	4492) The steerable glider with controls that allow the pilot to control all three axes of the airplane.	Dayton, Ohio
97 YBN [03/23/1903 AD]	4493) The airplane. The first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight by Wilbur and Orville Wright. The Wright brothers construct a gasoline engine powered airplane which makes four successful fights, the final, longest flight lasts for fifty-nine seconds and covers about half a mile through the air. For the first time in history, a heavier-than-air machine completes powered and sustained flight under the complete control of the pilot.	Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, USA
97 YBN [05/14/1903 AD]	4263) A model of the atom as a sphere composed only of pairs of negatively charged corpuscles and positive charges.	(Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA
97 YBN [05/28/1903 AD]	3677) The radiation from radium is shown to be less when colder.	(private lab) London, England(presumably)
97 YBN [06/??/1903 AD]	4893) The scattering of x-rays by gases is shown to depend on the molecular weight of the gas.	(University College) Liverpool, England
97 YBN [07/28/1903 AD]	4145) That helium is emitted from radium is shown spectroscopically.	(University College) London, England
97 YBN [11/23/1903 AD]	4264) Gold metal leaves exposed to x-rays are shown to acquire positive and lose negative electricity.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
97 YBN [12/05/1903 AD]	4462) The Saturnian {Sa-TR-nE-iN} model of the atom (negatively charged electrons rotate around a large mass positively charged particle) by Hantaro Nagaoka.	(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan
97 YBN [1903 AD]	4075) Untrained and trained reflexes are demonstrated.	(Military Medical Academy), St. Petersburg, Russia
97 YBN [1903 AD]	4768) Chromatography is invented: a method where different substances in a liquid pigment mixture move through a column of absorptive material at different rates because of their absorptive properties and are therefore separated into colored bands on the column.	(University of Warsaw) Warsaw, Poland
96 YBN [02/14/1904 AD]	4837) Actinium, like radium, is found to emit helium.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France (presumably)
96 YBN [03/17/1904 AD]	4894) The intensity of x-rays scattered by low atomic mass solids is found to be proportional to their atomic mass.	(University of Liverpool) Liverpool, England
96 YBN [06/29/1904 AD]	4707) The amount of inert gas emitted by radium is found to be directly proportional to the amount of uranium in any given sample, which is evidence that uranium decays into radium.	(Mining Engineering and Chemistry company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA
96 YBN [09/08/1904 AD]	4401) Alpha particles (helium nuclei) emitted from radium are shown to have several sharply delineated distance ranges.	(University of Adelaide) Adelaide, Australia
96 YBN [12/03/1904 AD]	4501) The sixth satellite of Jupiter Himalia (HimoLYo) is identified.	(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, California, USA
96 YBN [1904 AD]	3647) The first practical color photograph is created by using very small grains of potato starch stained red, green, and blue which only allow those particular colors to reach the light sensitive silver compound.	France
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4077) The vacuum tube diode (or "rectifier", which can "rectify" alternating current into direct current).	(University College) London, England
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4102) That the stars move in one of two directions in two large star streams is found which leads to the recognition of the shape of the Milky Way Galaxy.	(announced at:) St. Louis World Exhibition|(working at:)(University of Groningen) Groningen, Netherlands
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4198) A stain, trypan red, is found to destroy the protists trypanosomes curing a trypanosome infection in mice.	(Serum Institute) Frankfurt, Germany
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4366) The word "hormone" is coined for substances released from the endocrine gland that are carried by the bloodstream to other parts of the body where is extremely small amounts they are capable of profoundly influencing the function of those parts.	(University College) London, England
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4400) Carbon is shown to not always have a valence of 4 but sometimes to have a valence of 2, and this shows that an atom's valence can be variable.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, illinois, USA
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4447) Calcium absorption lines are found to not share in the periodic displacements of the other spectral lines caused by the orbital motion of a binary star and this is evidence of calcium in between the stars that absorbs the light.	(Potsdam Observatory) Potsdam, Getmany
96 YBN [1904 AD]	4463) The first of what will be called "co-enzymes" is discovered: a small molecule which is not a protein but is necessary to the correct functioning of an enzyme, which is a protein.	(Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine) London, England
96 YBN [1904 AD]	5099) Radar: Radio light is used to determine the location of distant objects by Christian Hülsmeyer.	Düsselsorf, Germany (presumably)
96 YBN [1904 AD]	5779) Fraunhofer's grating equation is adapted so that the grating spacing and deflected wavelength is connected to the angle of incidence of light instead of the angle of deflected light by Arthur Schuster. This slight change shows that the distance of the source light changes the position of a spectral line relative to the center node.	(University of Manchester) Machester, England
95 YBN [03/17/1905 AD]	4928) The theory that light is made of units of energy (light quanta) is established and used to mathematically connect the frequency of light to the photoelectric voltage produced.	Bern, Switzerland
95 YBN [03/30/1905 AD]	4502) The seventh satellite of Jupiter, Elara is identified.	(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, California, USA
95 YBN [05/01/1905 AD]	4740) A single gram of radium is estimated to emit over a billion Alpha and a billion Beta particles each second.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
95 YBN [05/01/1905 AD]	4741) The theory that gamma rays may be electrons with velocities that approach the speed of light, and that this high velocity may account for why they are not deflected in an electric or magnetic field.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
95 YBN [06/30/1905 AD]	4929) The special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein. Einstein theorizes that the speed of light is constant independently of the motion of all other objects, accepting the theory of Lorentz that mass and time depends on motion relative to an aether, but rejecting the theory of an aether as being unnecessary.	Bern, Switzerland
95 YBN [09/27/1905 AD]	4930) The theory that the intrinsic energy of all matter is dependent on the speed of light, and the famous equation E=mc2 (originally m=L/c2). One possible problem with this theory is that motion may not be a quantity that is intrinsic to matter, but instead a quantity that can be passed from one piece of matter to another.	Bern, Switzerland
95 YBN [11/05/1905 AD]	4823) The velocity of positive rays from Hydrogen are determined to be 500 times slower than light using Doppler shift.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
95 YBN [12/22/1905 AD]	4796) That the color of a star is related to its size is recognized, the relative brightness of a star is determined by scaling its apparent brightness by its distance, and the theory of stellar evolution: that stars lose brightness over time changing color in the direction of blue to red. In addition, red and yellow stars are thought to be divided into two groups, one with high brightness and the other with low brightness.	(University of Copenhagen, and at the Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg) Copenhagen, Denmark (verify)
95 YBN [1905 AD]	4034) The color motion film camera and projector.	(private studio) Brighton, England (presumably)
95 YBN [1905 AD]	4758) The bacteria that causes syphilis is discovered.	(Institute for Protozoology at the Imperial Ministry of Health) Berlin, Germany
95 YBN [1905 AD]	4771) The first ship to sail through the Northwest Passage (from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean along the Arctic coast of North America).	Herschel Island, Yukon
95 YBN [1905 AD]	4815) That elements and compounds absorb characteristic and specific wavelengths of infrared light is shown.	(National Bureau of Standards) Washington D.C., USA
94 YBN [01/13/1906 AD]	5502) The theory of "radiative equilibrium": that the atmosphere of a star above its surface is made of gas which follows the known gas laws, countered by the force of gravity.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany (presumably)
94 YBN [02/09/1906 AD]	4901) That absorption of secondary x-rays emitted from a material is proportional to the atomic mass of the secondary emitter is proven for heavier atoms too.	(University of Liverpool) Liverpool, England
94 YBN [06/??/1906 AD]	4268) The theory that the number of corpuscles in an atom is on the same order as the atomic mass, and that there are 25 corpuscles in each molecule of air (which is near the diatomic mass of nitrogen, 28).	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
94 YBN [07/20/1906 AD]	4743) The charge to mass ratio of alpha particles is found to be near 1/2 that for Hydrogen and are identified as helium.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
94 YBN [12/21/1906 AD]	4788) The electric switch and vacuum tube amplifier is invented by Lee De Forest. De Forest invents the first electric switch and amplifier by inserting a third element (called "the grid") into a diode, which makes the device a triode (having three electrodes). The stream of electrons moves from the filament to the anode plate at a rate that varies with the charge placed on the grid, so a varying very weak voltage on the grid can be converted into a similarly varying but much stronger electron flow from the filament to the plate, making the triode an electric amplified, and also an electric switch since current can be stopped altogether electronically.	(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New York City, New York, USA
94 YBN [12/24/1906 AD]	4479) The first amplitude modulation sound signal is sent and received using radio.	(National Electric Signaling Company and General Electric?) Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA
94 YBN [12/27/1906 AD]	4710) Radioactivity is used to determine the age of rocks. From the quantity of lead in uranium ores and the known rate of uranium disintegration, some rocks are found to be at least 2.2 billion years old.	(Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA
94 YBN [1906 AD]	4314) The nociceptor is identified; the pain receptor ending on sensory nerve fibers responsible for the sensation of pain.	(Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA
94 YBN [1906 AD]	4385) Mice are shown to stop growing, even if fed enough, because some amino acids required by a body cannot be manufactured in the body and have to come from food.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
94 YBN [1906 AD]	4419) The first of the "Trojan asteroids" is recognized: two groups of asteroids that move around the Sun in Jupiter's orbit: one group 60° ahead of Jupiter, the other 60° behind.	(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg, Germany
94 YBN [1906 AD]	4471) A diagnostic test for syphilis is created.	(Robert Koch Institute for Infectious Diseases) Berlin, Germany
93 YBN [04/03/1907 AD]	4763) The theory that the heat emitted when atoms break into smaller forms may allow the Sun to produce heat for a much longer time than previously thought.	(McGill University) Montreal, Canada
93 YBN [05/??/1907 AD]	4269) The mass spectrometer, a device that can separate atoms with an electric charge (ions) by their mass is invented by J. J. Thomson. Thomson deflects the positive rays found by Goldstein (Kanelstrahlen) by magnetic and electric fields so that ions of different ratios of charge to mass strike different parts of a phosphorescent screen. Thomson also recommends the name "positive rays" instead of Goldstein's name "Kanalstrahlen" (or "channel rays").	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
93 YBN [06/13/1907 AD]	4897) The velocity of electrons emitted by x-rays colliding with various metals is found to be directly related to the velocity of the electrons that created the x-rays in the cathode ray tube.	(Trinity College) Cambridge, England
93 YBN [09/14/1907 AD]	6254) The practical home vacuum cleaner.	Canton, Ohio, USA
93 YBN [11/13/1907 AD]	354) The helicopter. A helicopter built by Paul Cornu achieves free flight while carrying a passenger for about 20 seconds, reaching a height of one foot (or 30 cm).
93 YBN [11/26/1907 AD]	6263) An image is displayed on a Cathode-Ray Tube.	Petrograd, Russia
93 YBN [12/04/1907 AD]	4931) That the acceleration caused by gravitation is equivalent to an inertial acceleration is recognized.	(Moskau Ingenieure-Hochschule {Moscow Engineering School}) Moscow, Russia? (verify)
93 YBN [1907 AD]	4149) A protein molecule (polypeptide) eighteen amino acids long is assembled, and digestive enzymes are shown to break the protein into pieces just as they do natually occurring proteins.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
93 YBN [1907 AD]	4438) The theory of space and time as a four dimensional structure called "space-time" by Hermann Minkowski (miNKuFSKE).	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
93 YBN [1907 AD]	4764) The element Lutetium {lUTEsEuM}.	(Sorbonne) Paris, France
92 YBN [03/26/1908 AD]	5881) The theory that an electron is a chemical element.	(University College) London, England (presumably)
92 YBN [05/30/1908 AD]	4902) Secondary x-ray radiation from objects bombarded with x-rays is found to be homogeneous (has a constant absorption depth which is interpreted as the radiation being monochromatic) with no regard to the intensity of the primary x-ray beam by Charles Barkla.	(University of Liverpool) Liverpool, England
92 YBN [06/06/1908 AD]	3616) The first images are sent and received using radio; by Hans Knudsen. The images are scanned from a photo and the receiver uses a needle to mark a smoked glass plate.	London, England
92 YBN [06/20/1908 AD]	4523) The theory that sunspots are due to strong magnetic fields on the Sun.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
92 YBN [06/27/1908 AD]	4190) Helium is liquefied. Helium is the last known gas to be liquefied and the gas that requires the lowest temperature for liquefaction at 4 degrees above absolute zero.	(Leiden University) Leiden, Netherlands
92 YBN [07/28/1908 AD]	5034) The theory that the quantity of helium in some mineral which accumulates from radio-active atomic decay, can be used to determine geological age of the mineral.
92 YBN [1908 AD]	4238) Cellophane (a clear, flexible film made from cellulose).	Paris, France (presumably)
92 YBN [1908 AD]	4344) The theory that bacterial spores can survive the the cold and empty space between the stars for indefinite periods of time, and that life on Earth started when living spores reached the Earth.	(Nobel Institute for Physical Chemistry) Stockholm, Sweden
92 YBN [1908 AD]	4424) The "assembly line" method of product production.	(Detroit Automobile Company) Detroit, Michigan, USA
92 YBN [1908 AD]	4517) That a virus is responsible for poliomyelitis is determined.	(Royal-Imperial Wilhelminen Hospital) Vienna
92 YBN [1908 AD]	4531) Atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia (NH3 by combining nitrogen and hydrogen under pressure using iron as a catalyst.	(Fridericiana Technische Hochschule) Karlsruhe, Germany
91 YBN [02/08/1909 AD]	4428) The first thermosetting plastic, a plastic that does not soften when heated.	(announced at: American Chemical Society lecture) New York City, NY, USA (presumably)
91 YBN [04/06/1909 AD]	4244) Humans reach the North Pole of Earth.	Greenland
91 YBN [05/??/1909 AD]	4903) Two groups of homogeneous x-rays are distinguished from each heavy element which will be labeled L and K. In addition Stokes’s law of fluorescence is established: that these two radiations can only be excited by exposing the element to x-rays harder (more penetrating) than its own characteristic x-rays.	(University of Liverpool) Liverpool, England
91 YBN [07/12/1909 AD]	4475) That typhus is transmitted by the body louse is recognized.	(Pasteur Institute in Tunis) Tunis, Tunisia
91 YBN [09/??/1909 AD]	4729) The mass and size of an electron is determined by Jean Baptiste Perrin (PeroN). Perrin determines the mass to be 0.805x10-27 grams and the size to be 0.33 x 10-12 cm.	(École Normale, University of Paris) Paris, France
91 YBN [1909 AD]	4694) The carbohydrate present in yeast nucleic acid is identified as the pentose (5 carbon) sugar ribose.	(Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
91 YBN [1909 AD]	4899) A wireless telephone is publicly demonstrated by Guglielmo Marconi. But not until 1983, 74 years later, will wireless radio "cell" phones reach the public.	(Marconi Company) London, England (verify)
90 YBN [04/??/1910 AD]	4199) A synthetic molecule that cures syphilis by efficiently killing spirochetes (the bacteria which causes syphilis) is found.	(announced at the Congress for International Medicine, Wiesbaden, Germany, but work performed at Serum Institute) Frankfurt, Germany
90 YBN [08/??/1910 AD]	4320) The theory that space and time are infinite is revived.	(Harvard College Observatory) Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA (presumably)
90 YBN [12/29/1910 AD]	6613) "Crossing-over" is recognized: that a trait can cross-over from one homologous chromosome to another. A homologous chromosome is one of a pair of chromosomes, one from the female parent and one from the male parent, that have genes for the same traits in the same positions.	(Columbia University) New York City, NY, USA
90 YBN [1910 AD]	4281) The theory that there is a boundary between the outer layer of the Earth (later called the crust) and an inner layer (later called the mantle) because seismic waves are found to arrive at certain detecting stations sooner than anticipated.	(University of Zagreb) Zagreb, Croatia
90 YBN [1910 AD]	4476) That hereditary characters can be linked to gender (the character is passed on to one gender only), and are located on a specific chromosome is recognized.	(Columbia University) New York City, NY, USA
90 YBN [1910 AD]	4961) A pressure of 20,000 atmospheres is obtained.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachussets, USA
89 YBN [01/??/1911 AD]	4321) The theory that most of human thinking is of images.	Boston, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
89 YBN [04/19/1911 AD]	4691) The paths of ionizing rays (for example those made by α and β particles) are captured photographically using a cloud chamber (a device that expands gas).	(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
89 YBN [04/28/1911 AD]	4192) Electrical superconductivity at low temperatures is recognized.	(Leiden University) Leiden, Netherlands
89 YBN [04/??/1911 AD]	4746) The Rutherford atomic model and the atomic nucleus theory: that all atoms have a very small positively charged sphere (or "nucleus") in their center which is very small compared to the sphere of influence of the atom. The size of an atom is estimated to be around 100 pm.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
89 YBN [06/12/1911 AD]	3977) Magnetic fields are found to change the orientation of liquid crystals.	Sorbonne, University of Paris, Paris, France
89 YBN [06/15/1911 AD]	4874) An electric starter for a car engine is invented and will replace the hand crank method.	(Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co) Dayton, Ohio, USA
89 YBN [06/??/1911 AD]	3944) The theory that a machine could record the sounds of thought, and could also write sounds back to the brain which are heard in thought.	New York City, NY
89 YBN [11/13/1911 AD]	4270) The products of chemical reactions are detected using an mass spectrometer.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
89 YBN [12/14/1911 AD]	4772) Humans reach the South Pole.	South Pole
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4477) The start of chromosome mapping: mapping the position of traits on the chromosomes.	(Columbia University) New York City, NY, USA
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4846) The industrial use of bacteria to produce useful products: a specific species of bacteria is used to produce large quantities of acetone and butyl alcohol.	Pasteur Institute and (University of Manchester) Manchester, England
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4890) The first known nitrogen free radicals are identified.	(University of Munich) Munich, Germany
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4908) The theory of atomic isotopes is created by Frederick Soddy. An isotope is an element that can have a different atomic mass, but the same position on the periodic table. Soddy also recognizes that the emission of a helium nucleus (alpha particle) reduces the initial element to a different element two less in number on the Periodic Table.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4936) That electrons are emitted from hot metal and not from the surrounding air is proven.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4937) The first cancer causing virus is discovered.	(Rockefeller Institute, now called Rockefeller University) New York City, New York, USA
89 YBN [1911 AD]	4986) Electroscopes are found to record more charge with altitude and this is thought to be due to radiation from outer space.	Victor Franz Hess|(CE 1883-1964)
89 YBN [1911 AD]	5093) A neutral molecular particle beam is created by heating a metal inside an evacuated container; molecules in the vapor then diffuse through a small hole in an internal wall.	(Faculté des Sciences de Paris - University of Paris) Paris, France
88 YBN [01/05/1912 AD]	5301) Electrophoresis (electricity is used to separate particles in liquids).	Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany
88 YBN [03/03/1912 AD]	4528) The brightness of Cepheid variable stars (variable stars with short and regular periods of luminosity) in the Small Magellanic Cloud is shown to decrease linearly with the logarithm of their period of variation; so the brighter the star, the longer the period. Because the stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud are located at nearly the same distance from Earth, by comparing the intrinsic brightness from the period of variation to the apparent brightness, the distance to the variable star can be calculated.	(Harvard College Observatory) Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA
88 YBN [04/20/1912 AD]	4918) The terms "giant" and "dwarf" are introduced to describe two kinds of stars with the same spectrum but different luminosity and the first "white dwarf" star is described.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
88 YBN [05/04/1912 AD]	4939) The diffraction of X-ray light by atomic planes in a crystal of zinc sulfide is discovered by Max Laue (lOu). The wavelength (or particle interval) of x-rays is determined to be around 10 picometers which is smaller than ultraviolet light, and this suggests that x-rays are very high frequency light.	(University of Munich) Munich, Germany
88 YBN [07/01/1912 AD]	4861) The rotation period of Uranus is calculated by measuring the Doppler shift of the spectral lines at the edge of the disk of Uranus.	(Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
88 YBN [07/16/1912 AD]	5203) Cathode rays are shown to disintegrate molecules and atoms. Calcium fluoride in a little oxygen, when heated to bright redness and bombarded with cathode rays turns purple and silicon fluoride, and carbon monoxide are evolved. This could be arguably the first proven atomic fission.	(University College) London, England
88 YBN [08/??/1912 AD]	4274) That elements can hold different electric charges is shown. Atoms of Mercury are shown to hold a variety of charges from 1 to 7 times the unit of electric charge.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
88 YBN [10/??/1912 AD]	4912) That beta decay (the emission of a high-speed electron) results in an atom moving up one place on the periodic table is recognized.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland (verify)
88 YBN [11/11/1912 AD]	4404) Diffraction is explained as particle reflection by William Lawrence Bragg. The dispersion of light by a crystal (grating, or prism) into a spectrum of increasing frequencies is given a corpuscular explanation: that particles of the same spacing as planes of atoms in a crystal (or grating grooves in a grating), at a specific angle of incidence, all reflect in the same direction. Bragg applies the grating equation of Schuster (now called the Bragg equation) to the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction by crystals and uses this to make accurate determinations of the wavelengths (or particle intervals) of X-rays.	(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
88 YBN [1912 AD]	4298) The first "artificial kidney".	(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore, Maryland, USA
88 YBN [1912 AD]	4789) Multiple vacuum tube amplifiers (triodes) are connected together in series which multiplies the amplification of high-frequency electrical radio oscillations far more than simply raising the voltage on a single tube can, and which when connected to an antenna is far more powerful than existing radio transmitters.	(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New York City, New York, USA (presumably)
88 YBN [1912 AD]	4941) The theory that the continents were originally a single mass which is named "Pangaea" is created based on changes in the measurements of longitude of various cities over time.	Greenland
88 YBN [1912 AD]	4993) The name "vitamine" is suggested for substances needed by the body in small amounts.	(Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine) London, England
88 YBN [1912 AD]	4994) The measurement of dipole moments: the effect of an electrical field on the orientation of molecules that have a positive electrical charge on one part and a negative change on another provides a method to determine the geometry of molecules.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
88 YBN [1912 AD]	5001) A method is discovered of treating coal or heavy oil under high pressure with hydrogen in the presence of catalysts, which produces lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons like gasoline.	(his own private lab) Hannover, Germany
88 YBN [1912 AD]	6262) The first radio broadcast: the singing of Enrico Caruso from the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City.	(Metropolitan Opera House) New York City, New York, USA
87 YBN [01/27/1913 AD]	4272) The theory of isotopes is experimentally confirmed. Different isotopes of neon are deflected onto different parts of a photograph using a mass spectrometer.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
87 YBN [02/18/1913 AD]	4909) All known atomic radioactive disintegration series' are accounted for.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland
87 YBN [04/05/1913 AD]	5005) The atomic model of Niels Bohr: that electrons move in fixed circular orbits around a stationary positive nucleus with momentum=h/2pi (h is Planck's constant), and give off or absorb fixed amounts of energy (quanta) by moving from one orbit to another.	(University of Manchester) Machester, England
87 YBN [04/07/1913 AD]	4406) An x-ray spectrometer is invented which uses a crystal of known atomic cube size to determine the wavelength (or interval) of x-rays using the grating equation.	(University of Leeds) Leeds, England
87 YBN [04/07/1913 AD]	6245) The first home refrigerator which will replace the "ice box".	Chicago, Illinois, USA
87 YBN [05/28/1913 AD]	4932) The general theory of relativity by Albert Einstein and Marcel Grossmann. Einstein and Grossman restrict space and time to a "non-Euclidean" curved surface geometry, which replaces the view of unrestricted infinite space and time.	(Federal Institute of Technology) Zurich, Switzerland
87 YBN [07/18/1913 AD]	4800) Cepheid variable stars are used to estimate the distances to stars.	Potsdam, Germany
87 YBN [07/30/1913 AD]	4407) A monochromatic x-ray beam of known wavelength is used to determine the distance between parallel crystal planes that reflect the particles in the beam. This is the beginning of using x-ray "diffraction" to determine the shape and the position of each atom in a molecule.	(University of Leeds) Leeds, England
87 YBN [10/20/1913 AD]	4863) The Andromeda galaxy is claimed to have a very high velocity relative to the Earth by Vesto Melvin Slipher (SlIFR). Slipher compares the position of absorption lines in the spectrum of the Andromeda galaxy to those of Saturn and finds that Andromeda is moving towards the Earth with an average radial velocity of 300 km/s, 1/100th the speed of light, the highest velocity ever observed.	(Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
87 YBN [11/05/1913 AD]	4824) A strong static electric field is shown to cause a multiplication in spectral emission lines of Hydrogen and Helium.	(Physical Institute of Technology) Aachen, Germany
87 YBN [11/27/1913 AD]	4911) The theory that there must be electrons in the nucleus to compensate for the positive charge of the alpha particles, and that successive places in the periodic table correspond to unit differences in the net intra-atomic charge.
87 YBN [12/04/1913 AD]	4910) The name "isotope" is created for elements that are chemically inseparable but have different atomic mass by Frederick Soddy. In addition Soddy explains that because the electrons of beta decay originate from the nucleus and not the outer ring, there must be negative charge in the nucleus.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland
87 YBN [12/??/1913 AD]	5039) The high frequency spectra of elements are mapped and the frequency of secondary x-rays emitted from atoms is shown to increase with atomic mass by Henry Moseley.	(University of Manchester) Machester, England
87 YBN [1913 AD]	4361) Vitamins A and B, and their importance in the growth process are discovered.	(University of Wisconsin) Wisconsin, USA
87 YBN [1913 AD]	4811) Thought-photographs are produced by placing a photographic plate onto the forehead for half an hour.	Paris, France
87 YBN [1913 AD]	4942) A tungsten filament in an incandescent electric bulb filled with inert gases nitrogen and argon is shown to last longer than a tungsten filament in a vacuum.	(General Electric Company) Schenectady, New York, USA
87 YBN [1913 AD]	4963) The "Geiger counter"; which detects high velocity subatomic particles is invented. A cylinder contains a gas under high electric potential just low enough to not overcome the resistance of the gas. A high-velocity sub-atomic particle enters and ionizes one of the gas molecules which creates an avalanche of ionization that conducts a brief electric current that causes a speaker to make a click sound.	(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt) Berlin, Germany
87 YBN [1913 AD]	5019) That heat is produced and oxygen is consumed after the muscle is done contracting, not during the contraction is determined using thermocouples which record changes in heat.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
87 YBN [1913 AD]	5083) That γ Rays are emitted when α Rays collide with matter is shown.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
87 YBN [1913 AD]	6614) That a rocket with an initial mass of 200 pounds can achieve a velocity high enough for a 1-pound mass to escape the Earth if the propellant is gun cotton at 50 percent efficiency or greater is determined.	(Clark University) Worcester, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
86 YBN [04/14/1914 AD]	4510) Einstein's photoelectric equation for the maximum energy emission of a negative electron under the influence of ultra-violet light is verified experimentally.	(paper read at Physical Society Meeting) Washington DC (work done at University of Chicago) Chicago, illinois, USA
86 YBN [04/??/1914 AD]	5107) The high-frequency (x-ray) spectra for more than 30 elements is published.	(University of Oxford) Oxford, England
86 YBN [05/??/1914 AD]	5085) Gamma rays from radioactivity are found to have wavelengths in the X-ray region by Ernest Rutherford and Edward Andrade. This is the first determination of the particle intervals (or wavelengths) of gamma rays.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
86 YBN [05/??/1914 AD]	5879) The x-ray spectrum of Radium B and lead are found to be identical which confirms that they are isotopes.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
86 YBN [07/28/1914 AD]	4792) Sound is recorded and played back with motion pictures on plastic film by Eric Tigerstedt.	Berlin, Germany (verify)
86 YBN [07/??/1914 AD]	4879) The intensity of certain spectral lines is used to determine a star's absolute magnitude (the magnitude of a star as it would appear at a distance of 10 parsecs or 32.6 light-years) from it's apparent magnitude, and the method of "spectral parallax": by comparing the intensity of spectral lines between a star with another star with the same spectrum of known distance, the distance to the other star can be determined. Hydrogen emission lines are much stronger in stars of the same spectral type with small proper motion (more distant) than in those with a large proper motion (closer), and this forms the basis for the difference between giant and dwarf stars of the same spectral type.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
86 YBN [07/??/1914 AD]	4973) The first multistage rocket.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA (verify)
86 YBN [1914 AD]	4497) The Doppler effect for light is confirmed experimentally using an interferometer to measure the difference in position of the sets of rings produced by light from the two ends of a rotating white disk.	(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles, France
86 YBN [1914 AD]	4785) The first successful heart surgery; on a dog.	(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
86 YBN [1914 AD]	4962) An electron beam bombarding gases and vapors is shown to require a certain minimum energy to cause a full quantum of energy to be absorbed and light to be emitted.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
86 YBN [1914 AD]	4965) Experimental rockets are developed.	(Clark University) Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
86 YBN [1914 AD]	4977) The theory that spiral "nebulae" are other galaxies by Arthur Eddington.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
86 YBN [1914 AD]	5040) Mendel's genetic laws are used to create strains of wheat that are resistant to various wheat diseases.	(Agricultural Higher School) Moscow, Russia
86 YBN [1914 AD]	5088) The ninth satellite of Jupiter (Sinope) is identified (and is probably a captured asteroid).	(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, California, USA
86 YBN [1914 AD]	5179) A voltage-doubling circuit.	(University of Zurich) Zurich, Switzerland
86 YBN [1914 AD]	6620) That the refraction of x-rays must be taken into account when using the Bragg equation to determine atomic spacing.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
85 YBN [01/25/1915 AD]	4043) The first transcontinental telephone line is opened between New York City and San Francisco.	New York City and San Francisco, USA
85 YBN [01/??/1915 AD]	4864) From Doppler shift, fifteen galaxies (at the time called "nebulae") are all are measured to be moving away from the Earth with an average velocity of 400 km/s. In addition, a spiral galaxy is found to rotate at 100 km/s, about 8 times the edge of Jupiter.	(Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
85 YBN [04/13/1915 AD]	4817) The theory of a "packing fraction"; that about 0.77% of the mass of Hydrogen is lost when it is packed together to form larger atoms, that the atomic nucleus is made of combinations of Hydrogen and helium atoms, and that the heavier elements deeper inside stars are formed from elements of smaller atomic mass farther outside.	(Kent Chemical Laboratory, University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
85 YBN [10/12/1915 AD]	4392) The star Proxima Centauri is seen, ("proxima" is Latin for "nearest"). Pr oxima Centauri, is currently the nearest known star to our star and is 4.3 light years away.	(Cape Observatory) South Africa
85 YBN [11/25/1915 AD]	4934) Einstein publishes his field equations for his "general relativity" theory.	(Berlin's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) Berlin, Germany
85 YBN [11/??/1915 AD]	4840) The disease Pellagra is demonstrated to be a dietary deficiency disease.	(US Public Health Service) Washington, DC, USA (verify)
85 YBN [12/01/1915 AD]	4881) The spectrum of the companion of Sirius (Sirius B) is found to be the same as Sirius except that the ultraviolet part of the companion spectrum fades out sooner.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
85 YBN [12/03/1915 AD]	4995) That monochromatic X-ray beams can also be used to analyze powdered solids, which are mixtures of tiny crystals, oriented in all possible directions (provided the electrons show some regularity of arrangement in the atom) is shown.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
85 YBN [12/04/1915 AD]	4917) Bacteriophages are identified; viruses that can infect and kill bacteria.	(Brown Institution) London, England
85 YBN [12/17/1915 AD]	4933) Albert Einstein claims that the general theory of relativity more accurately explains the anomalous precession of the perihelion of planet Mercury than Newton's law of gravity does.	( Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) Berlin, Germany
85 YBN [1915 AD]	4970) That thrust and propulsion can take place in a vacuum, needing no air to push against is proven.	(Clark University) Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
84 YBN [01/26/1916 AD]	4855) The theory of a "covalent bond", in which the chemical combination between two atoms is the result of the sharing of a pair of electrons, with one electron contributed by each atom.	(University of California at Berkeley) Berkeley, California, USA
84 YBN [02/08/1916 AD]	4880) The existence of two kinds of M spectral type (red) stars, giants and dwarfs, is confirmed by comparing spectral lines using parallax to determine distance.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
84 YBN [02/24/1916 AD]	4809) The theory of a mass so dense that no material object can escape the mass's gravitational attraction is re-examined and interpreted in terms of the General Theory of Relativity.	Berlin, Germany (published), Russia (written)
84 YBN [11/??/1916 AD]	4982) The theory of "radiative equilibrium of the stars" first introduced by Karl Schwarzschild in which stars are viewed as being composed of gas and so follow the laws of a perfect gas is developed more by Arthur Eddington. In this view the radiation-pressure from the high temperature of the gas is balanced by the force of gravity pulling it back to the center.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
84 YBN [1916 AD]	4317) The star "Barnard's star" is identified and found to have the largest known proper motion (10 seconds of arc per year) until 1968. Barnard's star is one of the closest stars to us, and is a red dwarf star.	(Yerkes Observatory University of Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA
84 YBN [1916 AD]	4511) Planck's constant (h) is verified experimentally by using Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect to relate frequency of light to induced voltage.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, illinois, USA
84 YBN [1916 AD]	4530) Bohr's theory is modified to allow electrons to have elliptical orbits too.
84 YBN [1916 AD]	5023) A third electron shell, the "M" shell, is discovered using x-ray spectra.	(University of Lund) Lund, Sweden
84 YBN [1916 AD]	6615) The two x-ray spectral lines are interpreted using Niels Bohr’s new atomic model.
84 YBN [1916 AD]	6616) The theory that the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom determines the chemical properties of the atom.
83 YBN [06/??/1917 AD]	4702) A stronger permanent magnet is produced by adding colbalt to tungsten steel.	(Tokyo Imperial University) Tokyo, Japan
83 YBN [10/04/1917 AD]	6508) The electric propulsion engine is invented by Robert Goddard.	Worcester, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
83 YBN [10/18/1917 AD]	5025) The H and K calcium absorption lines are found to not share in the periodic shift of the spectral emission lines of 25 spectroscopic binary stars which casts doubts on the claim that other galaxies are moving rapidly away.	(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, California, USA
83 YBN [1917 AD]	4761) Ultrasonic sound (sound with a frequency too high to be heard by the human ear, for example greater than 20khz) is produced by piezoelectricity and is used to determine the location of objects using reflection (sonar) by Paul Langevin (loNZVoN). Sonar will be used to detect objects in air, but is mostly used in water (for example to visualize a fetus inside the womb, submarines, the ocean bottom, and schools of fishes).	(Collège de France) Paris, France (presumably)
83 YBN [1917 AD]	4765) The theory that the universe is expanding by Willem de Sitter.	(University of Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands
83 YBN [1917 AD]	5026) That chimpanzees can put two sticks together, and stack boxes, in order to get a banana is proven.	(Prussian Academy of Sciences at Tenerife) Canary Islands
82 YBN [03/16/1918 AD]	4923) Element 91, the radioactive element Protactinium.	(Institut für Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany
82 YBN [04/??/1918 AD]	5008) The Sun is determined to be in the outer part of our galaxy by Harlow Shapley. Shapley uses the (Cepheid) variable-star method to determine the distance of variable stars within each globular cluster and finds that the clusters are distributed roughly in the shape of a sphere around a center in Sagittarius, which he calculates to be 50,000 light years away.	(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA
82 YBN [06/21/1918 AD]	6199) The first electronic read and write memory is invented by William Eccles and Frank Jordan. Unlike other forms of information storage, with electronic memory the only moving parts are electric current.	(City and Guilds Technical College) London, UK
82 YBN [10/??/1918 AD]	5880) "Isobares" (in modern terms "isobars") are defined as elements with the same atomic mass but different positions on the periodic table.	(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland
82 YBN [1918 AD]	4443) The explosion of the mixture of hydrogen and chlorine gases on exposure to light is explained as a chain reaction in which light breaks a chlorine molecule into two chlorine atoms which then bond with a Hydrogen atom breaking the Hydrogen molecule into two Hydrogen atoms, which bond with and break a Chlorine molecule, and this cycle repeats itself.	( University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
82 YBN [1918 AD]	4978) Cepheid variable stars are explained as stars that pulsate as opposed to being binary stars.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
82 YBN [1918 AD]	4979) The first complete account of general relativity in English.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
82 YBN [1918 AD]	5002) The first radioactive "tracer". A radioactive isotope of lead is used to determine the solubility of lead salts.	(University of Budapest) Budapest, Hungary
81 YBN [02/08/1919 AD]	5068) The superheterodyne circuit: the high-frequency current produced by incoming radio oscillations is combined with a predetermined lower ultrasonic intermediate frequency giving a beat (or heterodyne) frequency that is the difference between the original combined frequencies. This combined signal is more easily amplified before being applied to the detector. This allows a receiver to easily tune into different frequencies being broadcast. The superheterodyne principle is used in 98 percent of all radio, radar, and television reception systems.	Paris, France
81 YBN [04/??/1919 AD]	4750) Atomic transmutation and atomic fusion. Atoms of Nitrogen are changed into atoms of Oxygen by high speed alpha particles colliding with Nitrogen gas by Ernest Rutherford. When a high speed Alpha particle from Radium collides with an atom of nitrogen gas, a proton is knocked lose from the nitrogen atom which causes a point of light to appear (a scintillation) on a zinc sulfate screen. In losing a proton, the nitrogen atom is converted into an oxygen atom. This is the first time one element is changed into another, which was a dream of the alchemists. This is also the first "nuclear" reaction and the first atomic fusion; a larger atom being made from smaller atoms. By 1924 Rutherford will have knocked protons out of the nuclei of most of the lighter elements. Transmutation is a major requirement to convert the common atoms of moons and planets such as silicon, aluminum, and iron into more useful atoms such as hydrogen and oxygen which can be used for fuel, air, and water.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
81 YBN [05/29/1919 AD]	4980) That light is deflected by the Sun during a solar eclipse is evidence that light is subject to gravity just like ordinary matter, but is found to more accurately confirm the theory of general relativity as opposed to the theory of Newtonian gravity.	Príncipe Island, West Africa
81 YBN [08/??/1919 AD]	4905) The start of an effort that will result in the identification of 212 of the 287 naturally occurring stable isotopes by using a mass spectrometer.	(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
81 YBN [12/30/1919 AD]	6095) Radioactive lead is used to prove the theory of electrolytic dissociation.	(University of Budapest) Budapest, Hungary
81 YBN [1919 AD]	4906) The theory that fractional atomic weights are due to mixing of isotopes, and so the elements are to be defined physically by their atomic numbers, instead of in terms of the mass of their isotopic mixtures.	(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
81 YBN [1919 AD]	4997) That working muscle does "anaerobic glycolysis", converts glycogen to lactic acid without the use of oxygen, and that the lactic acid is reconverted to glycogen through oxidation by molecular oxygen, during muscle rest is shown.	(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany
81 YBN [1919 AD]	5071) Increase in temperature is shown to increase the number of genetic mutations in fruit flies.	(Rice Institute) Houston, Texas
80 YBN [06/03/1920 AD]	4751) The transmutation of solid nitrogen compounds, carbon, aluminum, and silicon by alpha particles and the theory of what will be called a neutron: that an electron can bind more closely with a single Hydrogen nucleus to form a neutral atom of mass 1 with different properties than a neutral hydrogen atom in which the electron is more distant from the nucleus.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
80 YBN [08/??/1920 AD]	4411) A list of the size of all atomic radii is published based on x-ray dispersion (or "diffraction").	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
80 YBN [10/30/1920 AD]	5119) The asteroid Hidalgo is discovered, and shown to have an orbit that extends to the orbit of Saturn.	(University of Hamburg's Bergedorf Observatory) Hamburg, Germany
80 YBN [1920 AD]	4921) The polymerization of acetylene creates the precursor to the first commercially successful synthetic rubber.	(Notre Dame University) Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
80 YBN [1920 AD]	4922) Liver as a dietary factor is found to greatly increase hemoglobin regeneration in dogs. This leads to the successful treatment of pernicious anemia.	(University of California) San Francisco, California, USA
80 YBN [1920 AD]	5041) The theory that the planetary region of greatest diversity of a species of plant represents its center of origin is created and eventually 13 world centers of plant origin are proposed.	(University of Saratov) Saratov, Russia (presumably)
80 YBN [1920 AD]	5044) A beam of neutral silver atoms is observed to split into two separate beams when passed through a nonuniform magnetic field proving that that silver atoms can have only two orientations in an external field.	(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt, Germany
80 YBN [1920 AD]	5045) Neutral molecular beams of Hydrogen and Helium are "diffracted" (reflected into their spectrum of different frequencies) using a Lithium Fluoride crystal.	(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt, Germany
79 YBN [01/21/1921 AD]	4924) Nuclear isomers are discovered, atoms that have identical nuclei but have different half-lives. Two protactinium isotopes are found to have different half-lives.	(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie) Berlin, Germany
79 YBN [02/??/1921 AD]	4162) The diameter of the star Betelgeuse is determined to be nearly the size of the orbit of Mars using an interferometer and parallax.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
79 YBN [04/26/1921 AD]	5239) The Crab nebula is found to be expanding from photographs spanning 8 years.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
79 YBN [07/??/1921 AD]	4866) The atmosphere of Venus is found to have no oxygen or water vapor because those absorption lines are not found in the spectrum of Venus.	(Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
79 YBN [09/26/1921 AD]	5051) The theory that the color of the sea is from molecular scattering of light in water. as opposed to a reflection of the color of the sky.	(University of Calcutta) Calcutta, India
79 YBN [09/??/1921 AD]	4783) Neurotransmitters are discovered. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit nerve impulses across a synapse. A fluid (named "Vagusstoff") is released when a frog's vagus nerve is stimulated and this chemical can stimulate another heart directly.	(University of Graz) Graz, Austria
79 YBN [11/14/1921 AD]	5092) Insulin is isolated.	(University of Toronto) Toronto, Canada
79 YBN [1921 AD]	4387) The first coenzyme. The tripeptide glutathione (GlUTutION) is isolated, and shown to have two interchangeable forms: a reduced form and an oxidized form: the oxidized form acts as a hydrogen acceptor in being reduced and then passing on the hydrogen to oxygen during its spontaneous reoxidation.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
79 YBN [1921 AD]	4518) The system of antigens and antibodies is recognized. An antigen is a substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of an antibody. Antigens include toxins, bacteria, foreign blood cells, and the cells of transplanted organs.	(The Hague) Netherlands
79 YBN [1921 AD]	4854) That calcium and phosphorus are both needed by a body, and that rickets can be caused by a low-phosphorus diet is proven.	(Columbia University) New York City, NY, USA
79 YBN [1921 AD]	4955) Lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys bacteria is identified.	(St Mary's Hospital) London, England
78 YBN [01/26/1922 AD]	5103) Light is described as being made of "atoms of light" all having the same "very low mass", and the equations E=hv (by Planck) and E=mc2 (by Einstein) are equated to solve for the mass of the atom of light.	(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France (verify)
78 YBN [02/06/1922 AD]	4323) Objections and criticisms of the three astronomical proofs of the theory of relativity are published.	Luxor, Egpyt
78 YBN [03/01/1922 AD]	5163) Separating isotopes by evaporative centrifuging is suggested, where a material is heated into a vapour and separated by atomic mass in a rapidly rotating tube.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
78 YBN [03/03/1922 AD]	4324) The theory of an all-inertial universe where gravity is explained as a result of particle collision.	Menton, France
78 YBN [05/19/1922 AD]	3612) A gray-scale still image is sent and received using radio.	Washington, D.C., USA.
78 YBN [05/27/1922 AD]	5197) The theory of "polar fronts": that the atmosphere of Earth is made of air masses that are either warm tropical air or cold polar air, and the sharp boundaries between them are called "fronts" (similar to battle lines in war).	(Geophysical Institute) Bergen, Norway
78 YBN [08/01/1922 AD]	4820) The electric currents in nerve fibers are visualized.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
78 YBN [12/09/1922 AD]	5111) The index of refraction of glass, lacquer, and silver for x-rays is determined experimentally by measuring the angle of total reflection using x-rays.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
78 YBN [12/13/1922 AD]	5108) The "Compton effect": x-rays are found to have a lower frequency after being reflected which implies that a light quantum has momentum which is lost to an electron from the collision.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
78 YBN [1922 AD]	4362) Vitamin D is identified; important in calcium metabolism in animals to form strong bones and teeth and prevent rickets and osteoporosis.	(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore, Maryland, USA
78 YBN [1922 AD]	4444) An electric piano.	( University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
78 YBN [1922 AD]	4490) Alternative explanations in opposition to the experimental evidence thought to support the theory of relativity are published including that the motion of the perihelion of Mercury's orbit is due in part to the non-spherical shape of the Sun and other unaccounted for matter.	(Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore, Maryland, USA
78 YBN [1922 AD]	4951) The theory that polymers are actually giant molecules (macromolecules) that are held together by normal covalent bonds.
78 YBN [1922 AD]	5047) The "cosmological term" is removed from Einstein's general theory of relativity and the first mathematical analysis of an expanding universe.	(Academy of Sciences) Petrograd, Russia
77 YBN [01/02/1923 AD]	5003) Element 72, hafnium is identified by it's secondary x-ray spectrum.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
77 YBN [05/04/1923 AD]	5004) Radioactive lead dissolved in water allows the absorption and distribution of the lead in plants to be followed.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
77 YBN [06/14/1923 AD]	3613) Electronic moving images are transmitted and received using radio by Charles Jenkins.	Washington, D.C., USA.
77 YBN [09/03/1923 AD]	4860) The definition of acids and bases are broadened by defining acids as substances that lose a hydrogen ion in solution and bases as substances that accept a hydrogen ion in solution.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
77 YBN [09/10/1923 AD]	5104) The mass of a light particle (or "atom of light") is calculated to be less than 10-50 grams, and the theory that the "phase wave" of an electron in Bohr's model of the atom must be in tune with the length of the closed path to be stable.	(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France (verify)
77 YBN [12/29/1923 AD]	5058) A scanning electronic camera by Vladimir Zworykin (ZWoURi-KiN).	(for Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New Jersey, USA
77 YBN [1923 AD]	4216) The consumer movie camera.	(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA
77 YBN [1923 AD]	4927) An electronic theory of acids and bases: an acid is defined as an electron-pair acceptor and a base as an electron-pair donor.	(University of California at Berkeley) Berkeley, California, USA
77 YBN [1923 AD]	4987) The absorption of oxygen by respiring cells is measured by the decrease of pressure in a small flask.	(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology) Berlin, Germany
77 YBN [1923 AD]	4989) Removal of the pituitary gland is shown to result in the stopping of growth and the atrophy of other endocrine glands such as the thyroid, adrenal cortex and reproductive glands.	(University of California at Berkeley) Berkeley, California, USA
77 YBN [1923 AD]	5000) An ultracentrifuge is invented. A centrifuge can force colloidal particles to settle out of a liquid, and can be used to determine molecule size and mass.	(University of Uppsala) Upsala, Sweden
76 YBN [06/07/1924 AD]	5075) The "coincidence method" of detecting electrons from x-rays: x-rays that pass through two adjacent Geiger tubes at almost the same time cause electron emissions that are recorded as a coincidental event.	(University of Giessen) Giessen, Germany (presumably)
76 YBN [06/07/1924 AD]	5076) That cosmic rays may be particles is demonstrated.	(University of Giessen) Giessen, Germany (presumably)
76 YBN [06/13/1924 AD]	4975) The term "quantum mechanics" is introduced.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
76 YBN [07/18/1924 AD]	6622) Gold is obtained from mercury by the prolonged action of a high-voltage electric current on it.	(Technical High School) Charlottenburg, Berlin, Germany
76 YBN [08/??/1924 AD]	4753) For the lighter elements even atomic number elements are found to be more stable than odd number elements.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
76 YBN [08/??/1924 AD]	4896) A light ray device that can disable vehicles and burn people.	Chicago, Illinois, USA
76 YBN [12/17/1924 AD]	5199) The first photographs of a nuclear reaction; cloud chamber tracks show an alpha particle collision with a nitrogen atom.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
76 YBN [1924 AD]	3614) Photographs are sent over the phone wire.	Cleveland, OH, (to NYC, NY), USA
76 YBN [1924 AD]	4696) Tissue taken from one amphibian embryo and grafted onto another part is shown to assume the character of the host, losing its original nature.	(University of Freiburg) Breisgau, Germany
76 YBN [1924 AD]	4981) The absolute magnitude of a star is related to its mass.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
76 YBN [1924 AD]	5010) People with pernicious anemia are treated by feeding them liver to raise the number of their red blood cells.	(Collis P. Huntington Memorial Hospital, Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
76 YBN [1924 AD]	5118) The first Australopithecus skull is found.	(University of Witwatersrand) Johannesburg, South Africa
75 YBN [01/01/1925 AD]	5060) Spiral nebulae are proven to be other galaxies containing stars and to be very far away by Edwin Hubble. Hubble, using the largest telescope at this time, a 100-inch telescope on Mount Wilson, shows that M31 (the Andromeda galaxy) contains stars, and uses the period of a Cepheid variable star in M31 to show that it is very far away (930,000 light-years).	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
75 YBN [01/16/1925 AD]	5233) The "exclusion principle": that in any particular energy level, two and only two electrons are permitted, one spinning clockwise and one spinning counterclockwise. This adds a fourth "quantum number".	(Institute fur Theoretische Physik) Hamburg, Germany
75 YBN [02/21/1925 AD]	5105) That radio is reflected from an ionized layer 96km (or 60 miles) up in the Earth atmosphere is established.	(King's College) London, England
75 YBN [04/04/1925 AD]	4754) Hydrogen nuclei are called "protons".	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
75 YBN [05/12/1925 AD]	5027) Absorption lines from the muscles of the horse botfly are explained as being due to a respiratory enzyme (given the name cytochrome) within cells that absorbs oxygen, and catalyzes the combination of oxygen with other substances.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
75 YBN [05/18/1925 AD]	4882) An average displacement to the red of the spectral lines of the companion of Sirius (Sirius B) of 21 km/sec is found which is claimed to confirm the theory that Sirius B is a white dwarf star 2000 times denser than platinum and to confirm the general theory of relativity.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
75 YBN [06/06/1925 AD]	5024) The refraction of x-rays in glass is proven visually.	(University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden
75 YBN [07/13/1925 AD]	5059) A color image electronic scanning camera by Vladimir Zworykin (ZWoURiKiN).	(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
75 YBN [09/05/1925 AD]	5112) X-rays spectra are obtained using a metal grating.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
75 YBN [10/22/1925 AD]	5292) The transistor or solid-state electronic switch and amplifier is invented by Julius Lilienfeld. Lilienfeld patents the first publicly known non-vacuum tube (solid state) electronic switch and amplifier, also known as a "field-effect transistor". This is the first public millimeter size electronic switch.	Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA
75 YBN [11/16/1925 AD]	5282) "Matrix mechanics", a new form of quantum mechanics.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
75 YBN [11/20/1925 AD]	5254) The concept of electron spin is proposed.	(Instituut voor Theoretische Natuurkunde) Leyden, Netherlands
75 YBN [12/24/1925 AD]	4512) Rays detected from outer space are called "cosmic rays".	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California, USA
75 YBN [1925 AD]	4299) The protein insulin in prepared in crystalline form.	(Johns Hopkins University) Baltimore, Maryland, USA
75 YBN [1925 AD]	4990) The first dinosaur eggs are found.	Central Asia
75 YBN [1925 AD]	5017) The structure of the alkaloid morphine is determined (except for one atom).	(University of Oxford) Oxford, England
75 YBN [1925 AD]	5065) The first mechanical computer that can solve differential equations. Differential equations are equations that contain one or more derivatives and express a relationship involving the rates of change of continuously changing quantities.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
74 YBN [01/26/1926 AD]	6264) A system of television is demonstrated publicly.	(Royal Institution) London, England
74 YBN [03/06/1926 AD]	5165) The concept of molecular orbitals is introduced to determine the electronic structure of molecules and chemical bond formation. In this view the atomic orbitals of isolated atoms become molecular orbitals, extending over two or more atoms in the molecule.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
74 YBN [03/16/1926 AD]	4968) The first flight of a liquid fuel rocket engine.	(Aunt Effie's Farm) Auburn, Massachusetts, USA
74 YBN [03/18/1926 AD]	5063) The voltage of a single nerve fiber is measured; responses to stimuli are found to be only a few millivolts.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
74 YBN [06/02/1926 AD]	5038) The first enzyme to be prepared in crystalline form, and shown clearly to be a protein "urease" is isolated and named.	(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York, USA
74 YBN [06/26/1926 AD]	5131) Element 75, Rhenium {rEnEuM}.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
74 YBN [08/02/1926 AD]	5267) Atoms are ionized by electron impact from a thermionic cathode which shows that light quanta and electrons obey the same general laws in processes involving the ionization of atoms and molecules.	(Sloan Laboratory, Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA
74 YBN [12/14/1926 AD]	5146) The "adiabatic demagnetization" method is created to cool helium to lower a temperature than ever reached. The work of demagnetizing a magnetically aligned sample causes a decrease in the temperature.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
74 YBN [1926 AD]	4309) The concept of satellites and space stations.	Kaluga, Russia (presumably)
74 YBN [1926 AD]	4871) Helium is solidified.	(University of Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands
74 YBN [1926 AD]	5032) The Schrödinger (srOEDiNGR) model of the atom: material points are wave-systems, and electrons can be in any orbit in which its matter waves can extend in an exact number of wavelengths.	(University of Zürich) Zürich, Switzerland
74 YBN [1926 AD]	5072) X-rays are found to greatly increase the rate of genetic mutation.	(University of Texas) Austin, Texas, USA
74 YBN [1926 AD]	5156) The outer parts of the Milky Way galaxy are shown to rotate more slowly around the center of the galaxy and the inner stars to rotate faster, and the theory that the galactic system is rotating around a distant center.	(Uppsala University) Uppsala, Sweden
74 YBN [1926 AD]	6625) Plasticized PVC is produced (which is responsible for the commercial success of PVC).	(B. F. Goodrich Company) Akron, Ohio
73 YBN [03/03/1927 AD]	4957) Electron beams are "diffracted" using a single crystal of nickel. Electron beam particle intervals are found to be equivalent to x-rays (100 pm).	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York City, New York, USA
73 YBN [03/28/1927 AD]	5284) The "uncertainty principle" which states that making an exact simultaneous measurement of both the position and the momentum (mass times velocity) of any body is impossible.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
73 YBN [04/14/1927 AD]	5236) The distance of the Sun to the center of the galaxy is estimated as 16,618 light years.	(Observatory) Leiden, Netherlands
73 YBN [04/19/1927 AD]	4946) An atomic (as opposed to molecular) hydrogen blowtorch: hydrogen gas passes hot tungsten wires, this separates the hydrogen molecule into individual atoms, which then recombine producing a temperature near 6000°C (almost as hot as the surface of the Sun).	(General Electric Company) Schenectady, New York, USA
73 YBN [05/05/1927 AD]	5306) The theory of the conservation of atomic "parity": that whether the sign of the variables in the Schrödinger wave function Ψ(x,y,z) change or stay the same must always be the same for any reaction.	(Institute fur Theoretische Physik) Berlin, Germany
73 YBN [05/21/1927 AD]	5291) A person in a motorized plane crosses the Atlantic Ocean (in 33 1/2 hours).
73 YBN [05/24/1927 AD]	5100) The first image of the "diffraction" of an electron beam.	(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen, Scotland
73 YBN [06/16/1927 AD]	4907) Aston's theory of "packing fraction": that the greater the mass lost to packing fraction, the more tightly the component charges are bound together and the more stable the nucleus formed is.	(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
73 YBN [08/01/1927 AD]	5114) The space between ultra-violet and x-ray spectral lines (4-20 nm) is bridged.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
73 YBN [08/26/1927 AD]	5756) The first known bacterial "transformation" is observed, how DNA in the environment can enter a bacteria.	(Ministry of Health) London, England (verify this is in London at the time)
73 YBN [09/03/1927 AD]	5106) Evidence for more than one ionized layer in the Earth atmosphere is found.	(King's College) London, England
73 YBN [11/04/1927 AD]	5101) Photos of an electron beam diffracted (that is reflected off atomic structure) through various thin solid materials (celluloid, gold, aluminum).	(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen, Scotland
73 YBN [12/12/1927 AD]	5113) The name "photon" is suggested for the light quantum.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
73 YBN [1927 AD]	4520) The rhesus (Rh) factor is identified in human blood.	(Rockefeller Institute, now called Rockefeller University) New York City, New York, USA
73 YBN [1927 AD]	4821) Different nerve fibers are found to require a stimulus of different intensity to create an impulse.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
73 YBN [1927 AD]	4847) Cerebral angiography (or arteriography), a method of making visible the blood vessels of the brain by injecting into the carotid artery substances that are opaque to X rays is introduced.	(University of Lisbon) Lisbon, Portugal
73 YBN [1927 AD]	4947) Sleep is induced in cats using electrodes directly connected to the brain.	(University of Zurich), Zurich, Switzerland
73 YBN [1927 AD]	5089) The surface temperature of the moon is shown to drop 200 Centigrade degrees when in the shadow of the Earth during a lunar eclipse by using a thermopile.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
73 YBN [1927 AD]	5143) An expanding universe theory based on the general theory of relativity.	(University of Louvain) Louvain, Belgium
73 YBN [1927 AD]	5185) The hydrogen oxygen combustion chain reaction is shown to be stopped at the walls of the vessel before it has a chance to reach explosive rates below a critical temperature.	(Electronic Phenomena Laboratory of the Petrograd Physical-Technical Radiological Institute) (Petrograd now) Leningrad, Russia (presumably)
72 YBN [02/16/1928 AD]	5052) The "Raman effect": that light with visible frequencies reflected (or scattered) off of some substances can change frequency.	(University of Calcutta) Calcutta, India
72 YBN [03/28/1928 AD]	5293) The electrolytic capacitor.	Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA
72 YBN [06/11/1928 AD]	5789) The first rocket powered plane.	Wasserkuppe (one of the Rhone mountains), Germany
72 YBN [07/22/1928 AD]	5830) The first scientific pregnancy test.	(Aus der Universitats-Frauenklinik der Charite zu Berlin) Berlin, Germany
72 YBN [1928 AD]	4956) Penicillin is identified: a fungi that kills some types of bacteria but does not kill human white blood cells.	(St Mary's Hospital) London, England
72 YBN [1928 AD]	5709) The cartoon characters "Mickey and Minnie Mouse" are shown to the public, and may hint about the secret use of technology that allows the image the eyes see and the image of thought to be displayed as two circular windows over a head.	Manhattan, New York, New York City, USA
72 YBN [1928 AD]	6265) The infrared (or heat) movie camera. This camera can see through fog and make visible images of heat.	London, England (verify)
72 YBN [1928 AD]	6266) The first regular television broadcasts.	(General Electric, WGY) Schenectady, New York, USA
72 YBN [1928 AD]	6267) A color television system.	London, England (verify)
71 YBN [01/14/1929 AD]	5147) Oxygen is found to be a mixture of 3 isotopes.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
71 YBN [01/17/1929 AD]	5061) The radial velocities of other galaxies based on the shift of spectral lines thought to be due to Doppler shift are found to be linearly related to distance of the galaxies; the more distant the galaxy, the higher the radial velocity.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
71 YBN [01/31/1929 AD]	4958) Electron beams are found to be not polarized by reflection.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York City, New York, USA
71 YBN [02/23/1929 AD]	5383) Cloud tracks of cosmic ray particles are observed.	(Phys.-Techn. und Polytechn. Institut) Leningrad, (Soviet Union, now) Russia
71 YBN [04/22/1929 AD]	4781) The electroencephalograph (or EEG). Oscillations of the electric potential on the surface of the head are recognized and displayed graphically. In addition voluntary muscle movements are detected from associated changes in electric potential on the surface of the head.	(University of Jena) Jena, Germany
71 YBN [04/26/1929 AD]	5476) Plastic polarizer sheet.	(Norwich Research, Inc.) Norwich, Connecticut, USA
71 YBN [05/10/1929 AD]	5445) The electron lens; an electromagnetic field is used to focus a beam of electrons.	(Technischen Hochschule/Technical University) Berlin, Germany
71 YBN [06/17/1929 AD]	4695) The carbohydrate in nucleic acid, deoxyribose, is identified. Because of this nucleic acids will be divided into ribonucleic acids (abbreviated RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acids (abbreviated DNA) based on the sugar they contain.	(Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
71 YBN [07/??/1929 AD]	4969) The first instrument carrying rocket. A rocket carries a barometer, thermometer and a small camera.	Worchester, Massachusetts, USA
71 YBN [07/??/1929 AD]	4972) The first rocket to move faster than the speed of sound.	Worchester, Massachusetts, USA
71 YBN [08/23/1929 AD]	6500) Direct neuron writing to the eye screen; a point on the occipital region of the human brain is electrically stimulated and the human sees a small spot of light.
71 YBN [08/??/1929 AD]	5136) The female sex hormone estrone is isolated in crystalline form.	(St. Louis University) St. Louis, Missouri, USA
71 YBN [09/13/1929 AD]	5358) The method of cardiac catheterization is introduced. A catheter (plastic tube) enters a vein in the elbow and is pushes directly into the right atrium of the heart. This removes the need to directly inject drugs into the heart in an emergency.	(Chirurgischen Abteilung des Augusta Viktoria-Heims zu Eberswalde)
71 YBN [1929 AD]	4919) The theory that the light of the Sun is mostly from hydrogen.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena, California, USA
71 YBN [1929 AD]	4935) The Schmidt telescope, which allows viewing of large areas of the sky.	(Hamburg Observatory) Bergedorf, Germany
71 YBN [1929 AD]	5371) Two parallel counters surrounded by thick shielding of lead and iron and separated by several centimeters in a vertical plane are found to occasionally discharge in coincidence by the passage of a charged particle through the shield and the two counters.	(University of Giessen) Giessen, Germany (presumably)
70 YBN [01/??/1930 AD]	5178) Protons subjected to 25kV are collided with a copper target and no radiation is found from the proton impacts.	(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York, USA
70 YBN [02/18/1930 AD]	4795) The two characteristic electrical oscillations measured with electrodes placed on the head are named "alpha" and "beta".	(University of Jena) Jena, Germany
70 YBN [02/18/1930 AD]	5398) The dwarf planet Pluto is identified.	(Lowell Observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
70 YBN [02/??/1930 AD]	5009) The suggestion that "extragalactic nebulae" be called "galaxies", recognizing that our own galaxy is only one of many. Before this the word "galaxy" had only referred to our galaxy, that is the group of stars within the radius of the globular clusters.	(Harvard College Observatory) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
70 YBN [04/04/1930 AD]	5220) The first vaccine against yellow fever.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
70 YBN [07/19/1930 AD]	5020) The presence throughout the galactic plane of interstellar matter that absorbs light and decreases the apparent brightness of distant star clusters is demonstrated.	(Mount Hamilton) Santa Clara County, California, USA
70 YBN [08/19/1930 AD]	5177) Artificial radiation is induced by protons and molecules with a voltage of 280 kV. Protons and molecules are collided at voltages up to 280 kV with a lead and a beryllium salt target which results in radiation emitted from the targets.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
70 YBN [10/10/1930 AD]	5268) The circular particle accelerator (the cyclotron) in which an electromagnetic field accelerates and deflects the path of ions into circles by Ernest Lawrence.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
70 YBN [10/10/1930 AD]	5269) Neutron rays are shown to be nearly 10 times as effective as x-rays in lowering the total number of lymphocytes in blood.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
70 YBN [10/23/1930 AD]	5077) Very penetrating radiation is found to be emitted from beryllium bombarded with alpha particles, which will be shown later to be neutrons.	(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany
70 YBN [12/04/1930 AD]	5234) An unnamed particle is proposed to account for the apparent violation of the law of conservation of energy in beta decay which will later be named a "neutrino".	(Physical Institute of the Federal Institute of Technology) Zürich, Switzerland
70 YBN [1930 AD]	5031) A hormone is isolated from the pituitary gland that has the reverse effect of insulin, and so can increase the amount of sugar in the blood.	(University of Buenos Aires School of Medicine) Buenos Aires, Argentina
70 YBN [1930 AD]	5079) Pepsin is crystallized; the protein-splitting digestive enzyme in gastric secretions.	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
70 YBN [1930 AD]	6578) Women gain the right to vote in most major nations.
69 YBN [05/29/1931 AD]	5299) The theory that an anti-electron, and anti-proton may exist with the same mass, but opposite charge as an electron and proton, respectively, and that a light particle is a sphere that can collide with other light particles. This view of antimatter will later be adapted or misinterpreted to claim that anti-particles are non-material.
69 YBN [09/10/1931 AD]	5446) The electron microscope is invented by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll, using magnetic fields to focus electron beams similar to how a lens focuses light beams. This microscope can only magnify an object 16x. This microscope is a "transmission electron microscope" (or TEM) which transmits electrons through the specimen.	(Technischen Hochschule/Technical University) Berlin, Germany
69 YBN [10/03/1931 AD]	5161) The first synthetic rubber: neoprene.	( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company) Wilmington, Delaware, USA
69 YBN [10/13/1931 AD]	5319) The male sex hormone "androsterone" is isolated.	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
69 YBN [11/29/1931 AD]	5213) The structure of the crystal lattice of cellulose is determined using x-rays.	(University of Leeds) Leeds, England
69 YBN [12/05/1931 AD]	5125) Deuterium is isolated: an isotope of hydrogen with a neutron and proton instead of just a proton, also known as "heavy hydrogen".	(Bureau of Standards) Washington, D. C. (and Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
69 YBN [12/16/1931 AD]	5370) That cosmic particles can penetrate through a meter of solid lead is demonstrated.	(University of Florence) Florence, Italy
69 YBN [12/19/1931 AD]	5288) A high-voltage electrostatic generator (the Van de Graaff generator).	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
69 YBN [12/28/1931 AD]	5188) That gamma rays are emitted by the bombardment of boron by alpha particles is determined.	(Radium Institute) Paris, France (presumably)
69 YBN [1931 AD]	4964) Cosmic ray showers are detected when counters placed in separate rooms record simultaneous detections.	(University of Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany
69 YBN [1931 AD]	4991) A pressurized air-tight air vehicle cabin.	Augsburg, Germany
69 YBN [1931 AD]	5054) Vitamin A is synthesized.	(Chemical Institute) Zürich, Switzerland
68 YBN [02/17/1932 AD]	5086) The neutron is identified and distinguished from a hydrogen atom by James Chadwick. Chadwick identifies a neutral particle he names a "neutron", which can be supposed to "consist of a proton and an electron in close combination" with a mass "slightly less than the mass of the hydrogen atom".	(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
68 YBN [02/??/1932 AD]	5062) The globular clusters around the Andromeda galaxy are found to be distributed around the galactic center, which supports the observed positions of globular clusters of this galaxy.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
68 YBN [03/01/1932 AD]	5342) The electric potential created in a single neuron in the eye of a horse-shoe crab when light contacts the retina is measured; around 0.5 millivolts.	(University of Pennsylvania) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
68 YBN [04/16/1932 AD]	5182) Atomic fission and the first nuclear transformation by protons: Lithium atoms are split by protons under 125 kilovolts into two Helium atoms.	(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
68 YBN [04/23/1932 AD]	5053) Light is scattered using ultrasound.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
68 YBN [04/29/1932 AD]	5385) That thunderstorms produce radio light is shown.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York City, New York, USA
68 YBN [04/30/1932 AD]	5244) The "urea cycle" is described: amino acids (the monomers of proteins) lose their nitrogen in the form of urea, which is excreted in urine.	(University of Freiburg) Freiburg, Germany
68 YBN [05/08/1932 AD]	5386) A radio light source from outside the solar system is detected.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York City, New York, USA
68 YBN [05/09/1932 AD]	5167) Vitamin C is isolated.	(University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
68 YBN [06/07/1932 AD]	5286) The theory that protons and neutrons are held together in an atomic nucleus by exchanging electrons which will come to be known as the "strong" force. In addition a quantum number which distinguishes between a proton and a neutron is introduced.	(University of Leipsig) Leipsig, Germany
68 YBN [06/15/1932 AD]	5183) A variety of elements are disintegrated using high-speed protons, for example Fluorine into Oxygen and Sodium into Neon.	(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
68 YBN [08/02/1932 AD]	5381) The positive electron (the positron) is identified by Carl Anderson who captures photos of positive electrons using a cloud chamber.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
68 YBN [10/23/1932 AD]	5377) Absorption lines for ammonia and methane are recognized in the spectra of Jupiter and the outer giant planets. This is evidence that the outermost atmosphere of Jupiter must be under 1000º Kelvin (726º C/1340º F).	(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany
68 YBN [1932 AD]	4971) Gyroscopes and deflector vanes are used to stabilize and guide rockets.	(Clark University) Worchester, Massachusetts, USA
68 YBN [1932 AD]	5080) Trypsin is crystallized; a protein-splitting enzyme of the pancreatic secretions.	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
68 YBN [1932 AD]	5155) An orange-red dye with the trade name "Prontosil" is found to have a powerful effect on streptococcus infections in mice.	(I. G. Farbenindustrie) Wuppertal-Elberfeld, Germany
68 YBN [1932 AD]	6261) The first plastic-backed magnetic recording tape is produced.	(BASF) Ludwigshafen, Germany
67 YBN [02/08/1933 AD]	5247) That light can not only stimulates but can also inhibit impulses along the optic nerve is shown.	(Oxford Univerity) Oxford, England
67 YBN [03/27/1933 AD]	5201) Positive electron tracks are detected from collisions of neutrons and gamma rays with lead.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
67 YBN [03/??/1933 AD]	4164) The speed of light in a vacuum is measured and found to have an average of 299,774 km/s (186,271 miles a second).	Irvine, CA, USA
67 YBN [04/10/1933 AD]	5189) In addition to neutrons, and gamma rays, positive electrons are detected from bombarding Beryllium with alpha particles.	(Radium Institute) Paris, France (presumably)
67 YBN [05/22/1933 AD]	5190) The theory that a quantum of gamma rays can transform into a positive and negative electron.	(Radium Institute) Paris, France (presumably)
67 YBN [06/16/1933 AD]	5278) High-speed protons cause transmutation in Lithium and Boron.	(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
67 YBN [07/30/1933 AD]	5069) Frequency modulation (FM) of radio is invented, which eliminates the problem of static from amplitude modulation (AM).	New York City, New York, USA
67 YBN [08/01/1933 AD]	4985) Vitamin C is synthesized and named ascorbic acid.	(Federal Institute of Technology) Zurich, Switzerland and (Birmingham University) Birmingham, England
67 YBN [09/10/1933 AD]	4812) A method to photograph images of thought is proposed.	(Tesla's private lab) New York City, NY, USA (verify)
67 YBN [10/07/1933 AD]	5474) Neutrons caused by cosmic ray collisions in Argon gas are detected using a cloud chamber.	(Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, University of Delaware) Newark, Delaware, USA
67 YBN [12/12/1933 AD]	5447) An electron microscope that magnifies objects more than any light microscope (12,000x).	(Technischen Hochschule/Technical University) Berlin, Germany
67 YBN [1933 AD]	4822) Nerve fibers are found to conduct impulses at different rates, depending on the thickness of the fiber (impulses traveling faster the thicker the fiber), and different fibers are found to transmit different kinds of impulses, represented by different types of waves.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
67 YBN [1933 AD]	4859) A sample of water is prepared in which all the hydrogen atoms are "deuterium". This water is called "heavy water".	(University of California at Berkeley) Berkeley, California, USA
67 YBN [1933 AD]	5273) The theory of the existence of a "weak interaction" (or force) is created to explain beta decay which includes the "neutrino".	(University of Rome) Rome, Italy (presumably)
66 YBN [01/15/1934 AD]	5191) Atoms of aluminum are converted into a radioactive isotope of phosphorus by alpha particles from Polonium.	(Radium Institute) Paris, France (presumably)
66 YBN [01/22/1934 AD]	5413) The amino acid lysergic acid is isolated and named. Later workers will prepare the dimethyl amide of this acid and find that the compound, lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD, has considerable physiological effects.	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
66 YBN [01/29/1934 AD]	5192) The first chemical proof of atomic transmutation and atomic fusion. Boron and Aluminum are irradiated with alpha particles from Polonium. Nitrogen is then chemically separated from irradiated Boron, and Phosphorus from irradiated Aluminum, and shown to have the same chemical properties as non-radioactive Nitrogen and Phosphorus.	(Radium Institute) Paris, France
66 YBN [02/10/1934 AD]	5202) Electron and positron emission is detected from gamma ray collision with lead.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England (presumably)
66 YBN [02/24/1934 AD]	5184) Radioactivity is induced by bombarding Carbon in graphite with high velocity Protons and Diplons (a proton with a neutron) at 600 kv, which produces the unstable isotope N13 by the addition of a proton to C12.	(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
66 YBN [03/09/1934 AD]	4755) The atomic fusion of two Hydrogen atoms into a Helium atom. Compounds with deuterium are bombarded with deuterons (a deuterium nucleus). This reaction also produces tritium (hydrogen-3, an isotope of hydrogen having an atomic weight of three).	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
66 YBN [03/19/1934 AD]	5210) Supernovas are distinguished from ordinary novas.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA
66 YBN [03/25/1934 AD]	5274) Artificial radiation is induced by neutron bombardment.	(University of Rome) Rome, Italy (presumably)
66 YBN [04/11/1934 AD]	5320) "Progesterone" is isolated, a female hormone a hormone that prepares the uterus for the fertilized ovum and maintains pregnancy.	(Institute der Technische Hochschule) Danzig-Langfuhr, Germany (Austria)
66 YBN [05/??/1934 AD]	5275) Atomic fission of uranium by neutrons. Bombarding uranium with neutrons results in an unknown element with a 13 minute half life which will later be shown to be Barium (atomic number 56), a product of atomic fission.	(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
66 YBN [06/07/1934 AD]	4853) "Vagusstoff", the molecules released at nerve endings, is identified as acetlycholine.	(National Institute For Medicine) Hampstead, London
66 YBN [06/28/1934 AD]	5205) The possibility of a self-sustained neutron driven atomic chain reaction is recognized.	(Claremont Haynes & Co) London, England
66 YBN [07/11/1934 AD]	4248) The theory of particle beams as weapons that can destroy planes and kill millions of people without a trace in an instant.	(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY, USA
66 YBN [08/09/1934 AD]	4867) That the methane molecule is a major part of the atmosphere of the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune is recognized from the absorption spectra.	(Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
66 YBN [08/18/1934 AD]	5087) The first atomic fission caused by light particles: Gamma rays disintegrate a deuterium atom (an isotope of hydrogen containing one proton and one neutron). From this the mass of a neutron is estimated to be around 1.008 mass units, more massive than a hydrogen atom.	(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
66 YBN [09/17/1934 AD]	5206) Neutrons are produced from beryllium using gamma ray irradiation from radium.	(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London, England
66 YBN [09/17/1934 AD]	5388) Two new "white dwarf" stars are identified.
66 YBN [11/14/1934 AD]	5196) Many atomic transmutation reactions are summarized and displayed on a table for all known elements.	(Radium Institute) Paris, France
66 YBN [11/17/1934 AD]	5452) The theory of a nuclear field, analogous to the electromagnetic field, but with a quantum that has 200 times the mass of an electron, and the same electric charge, either positive or negative of the electron, that is responsible for the conversion of protons to neutrons and neutrons to protons. This force will become known as the "strong interaction" or "strong force".	(Osaka Imperial University) Osaka, Japan
66 YBN [11/26/1934 AD]	5207) Neutrons are produced from X-ray irradiation of beryllium; the neutrons making bromine radiaoactive.	(St. Bartholmew's Hospital) London, England
66 YBN [12/04/1934 AD]	5126) That a heavier isotope tends to react more slowly than a lighter isotope is used to build up quantities of rare isotopes.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
66 YBN [1934 AD]	4904) Humans descend to almost a km (over half a mile) into the Ocean.
66 YBN [1934 AD]	5011) Thiamin is isolated, the vitamin whose absence causes beriberi.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
66 YBN [1934 AD]	5276) Neutrons that pass through hydrogen substances are found to increase the radioactivity produced by many elements and this is interpreted as being due to a slowing down of neutrons.	(University of Rome) Rome, Italy (presumably)
66 YBN [1934 AD]	5356) Cherenkov radiation: blue light is found emitted by various liquids bombarded by gamma rays.	(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow, (Soviet Union now) Russia
65 YBN [01/01/1935 AD]	5492) The theory that there is a mass-radius relation for collapsed stars which puts limits on the largest mass and radius possible for stars. This leads to what is known as the "Chandrasekhar limit", which is a theoretical limiting mass of about 1.44 solar masses above which a white dwarf cannot exist in a stable configuration.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
65 YBN [01/26/1935 AD]	5133) Succinic, fumaric and malic acid are found to be oxidised by muscle cells.	(University of Szeged) Szeged, Hungary
65 YBN [02/??/1935 AD]	5162) The artificial silk: nylon.	(E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company) Wilmington, Delaware, USA
65 YBN [04/08/1935 AD]	5145) Vitamin K, is identified and named, without which causes slowing of blood clotting in baby chickens.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
65 YBN [05/16/1935 AD]	5374) An x-ray microscope is proposed.	(National Physical Laboratory) Teddington, Middlesex, England
65 YBN [06/26/1935 AD]	5215) Using radioactive molecules ("tracers"), fat molecules with radioactive deuterium are found to be rapidly absorbed by laboratory animals.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
65 YBN [07/12/1935 AD]	5016) The isotope uranium-235 is identified using a mass spectrograph.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
65 YBN [07/28/1935 AD]	5357) A virus is crystalized (the tobacco mosaic virus).	(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
65 YBN [08/28/1935 AD]	5507) Lithium, Boron and Nitrogen are transmuted with slow neutrons.	(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
65 YBN [08/28/1935 AD]	5509) Beryllium is found to slow fast neutrons to slower speeds (is a neutron "moderator").	(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
65 YBN [10/22/1935 AD]	5451) The scanning electron microscope (SEM), a device that moves a focused electron beam in rows and columns over the surface of an object, and receives both the electrons scattered (reflected) by the object and the secondary electrons produced by it.	(Technischen Hochschule/Technical University) Berlin, Germany (presumably)
65 YBN [10/28/1935 AD]	5095) A lithium or boron coated ionization chamber is found to be a very sensitive detector for slow neutrons.	(Gonville and Caius College University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
65 YBN [11/19/1935 AD]	5498) The theory that when an electric current is passed into a nerve, an electric potential increases until a threshold voltage is reached, and "excitation" occurs. When the current is withdrawn, the nerve returns to its original electric potential.	(University College) London, England
65 YBN [11/23/1935 AD]	5456) Sulfanilamide is shown to be the part of Prontosil that is effective against streptococci.	(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France
65 YBN [1935 AD]	4786) An artificial heart that is used during heart surgery.	(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
65 YBN [1935 AD]	5014) The steroid hormone cortisone is isolated.	(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota, USA
65 YBN [1935 AD]	5055) Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is synthesized.	(Chemical Institute) Zürich, Switzerland
65 YBN [1935 AD]	5094) The first aluminized mirrors.	(Institut d’Optique) Paris, France
65 YBN [1935 AD]	6627) Polyethylene is synthesized; the most widely used plastic in the world. Polyethylene is made into products like clear food wrap, shopping bags, detergent bottles, fuel tanks, fabric fibers, and synthetic rubbers.
64 YBN [01/??/1936 AD]	6319) The first photo of red-shifted calcium absorption lines of galaxies claimed to be the result of Doppler shift from the galaxy having extremely high relative radial velocity are published. A problem with comparing different size spectra is clearly seen.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
64 YBN [02/13/1936 AD]	5457) Antihistamines are identified; compounds that neutralize some of the unpleasant symptoms of allergies such as stuffed-up or runny nose..	(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France
64 YBN [03/11/1936 AD]	5496) Muscle contraction (in crabs) can be varied and controlled by the frequency of electrical current pulses on the nerve connected to the muscle, which allows a muscle to have a strong contraction or a small contraction when needed. In addition, a small quantity of potassium applied to the neuron-muscle junction causes the muscle to contract and a similar quantity of magnesium causes an opposite curare-like blocking effect on the neuron-muscle junction.	(University College) London, England
64 YBN [07/23/1936 AD]	5270) Neutron rays are shown to be much more effective at killing mice than x-rays in addition to mouse tissue cells.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
64 YBN [08/08/1936 AD]	5479) The location of cerebral tumors are located using electro-encephalography.	(The Central Pathological Laboratory and the Hospital for Epilepsy and Paralysis) Maida Vale, United Kingdom
64 YBN [08/10/1936 AD]	5540) The "isotopic spin formalism", which is a system that uses 5 quantum numbers to describe a particle: 3 for the particle's position, 1 for its spin, and another to distinguish between a neutron and proton.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
64 YBN [08/17/1936 AD]	5336) The "diffraction" (also called "Bragg reflection") of neutrons with crystals of Magnesium oxide. A neutron beam is shown to have a wavelength of 1.6A (160 pm, similar to x-rays).	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
64 YBN [1936 AD]	5012) Thiamin (vitamin B1) is synthesized.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
64 YBN [1936 AD]	5116) A map of the X chromosome which shows the positions of the genes causing color blindness, severe light sensitivity of the skin, a particular skin disease, and other traits.	(University College) London, England
64 YBN [1936 AD]	5117) The first estimate of the rate of mutation of a human gene.	(University College) London, England
64 YBN [1936 AD]	5422) The poliomyelitis virus is cultered in vitro in human embryonic nervous tissue.	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
63 YBN [03/01/1937 AD]	5245) The basic structure of what will be called the "Citric-Acid" ("tricarboxylic acid" or "Krebs") cycle: the cycle of oxidation of all food and ATP production in living cells.	(University of Sheffield) Sheffield, England
63 YBN [03/17/1937 AD]	5471) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is identified and detected in a virus.	(Rothamsted Experimental Station) Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England
63 YBN [04/??/1937 AD]	6268) The turbo jet engine: an internal-combustion engine that propels air vehicles by means of the rearward discharge of a jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases generated by burning fuel with air drawn in from the atmosphere.	(British Thomson-Houston works) Rugby, England
63 YBN [05/14/1937 AD]	5548) The first transuranium elements. Elements 93 through 96 (Neptunium, Plutonium, Americium {aMurisEuM}, and Curium) are identified by Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, and Fritz Strassmann, from the collision of neutrons with uranium.	(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany
63 YBN [05/22/1937 AD]	5515) The first image of individual atoms is captured by Erwin Müller (CE 1911-1977). Atoms are confirmed to be about 0.1 nm in size. Müller invents the field-emission electron microscope (FEEM) which magnifies the tip of a tungsten needle 200,000 times.	(Siemens and Halske) Berlin, Germany
63 YBN [06/30/1937 AD]	5364) Element 43, the first completely artificial element, the radioactive metal technetium {TeKnEsEuM} is created by particle collision and identified by Emilio Segrè (SAGrA) and Carlo Perrier using chemical analysis. Technetium has no stable isotopes.	(Royal University) Polermo, Italy
63 YBN [07/09/1937 AD]	5046) A magnetic moment for protons is measured by deflecting neutral molecules of Hydrogen and Deuterium.	(Carnegie institute of Technology) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
63 YBN [09/??/1937 AD]	5449) The theory that H2 and N2, formerly undetectable in planetary and stellar spectra, can be detected from their "rotation-vibration" spectrum, not by their "dipole moment", but by their "quadrupole moment".	(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
63 YBN [09/??/1937 AD]	5525) The first radio telescope that has a reflector or radio dish.	Wheaton, Illinois, USA
63 YBN [1937 AD]	3622) The process of xerography (or electrophotography), which uses electrostatic charges and heat to copy documents. Xerography is the basis of photocopiers and laser printers.	New York City NY, USA
63 YBN [1937 AD]	4843) The alkaloid "colchicine", from the autumn crocus (a flower), is found to produce mutations in plants, causing the chromosomes in a cell to double in number without allowing the cell to divide. In addition, increasing the chromosome number is found to creates an identical increase in flower petals.	(Carnegie Institution of Washington) Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA
63 YBN [1937 AD]	5029) Of the twenty plus amino acids that are present in nearly every protein molecule, only 10 are found to be essential to rats, otherwise their body will not be able to produce protein.	(University of Illinois) Urbana, Illinois
63 YBN [1937 AD]	5151) Cherenkov radiation is explained as being the result of radiation from an electron in a medium moving faster than the speed of light in that medium, analogous to the creation of a sonic boom when an object exceeds the speed of sound in a medium.	(Moscow University) Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia
63 YBN [1937 AD]	5223) That cell oxidation will not proceed without the addition of some phosphate is found.	(Carlsberg Foundation) Copenhagen, Denmark
63 YBN [1937 AD]	5229) That species have large genetic variability is shown.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
63 YBN [1937 AD]	5266) Nicotinic acid is found to be a vitamin and the cure to the disease pellagra.	(University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
63 YBN [1937 AD]	5348) The basis for the theory of a neutron star: that in sufficiently massive stars after all thermonuclear sources of energy for the central material of a star have been exhausted, a condensed neutron core is formed.	(George Washington University) Washington, D.C., USA (presumably)
62 YBN [04/12/1938 AD]	4794) The theory that alpha and beta brain waves might be detected remotely.	(University of Jena) Jena, Germany
62 YBN [04/??/1938 AD]	6271) Teflon is invented.	(E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company) Wilmington, Delaware, USA
62 YBN [06/01/1938 AD]	5544) Two new iodine isotopes are identified by bombarding tellurium with deuterons: iodine-126 with a 13-day half-life, and iodine-131 with a half-life of 8 days. Iodine-131 is now used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
62 YBN [06/16/1938 AD]	5382) Charged particles with masses in between an electron and proton are recognized by Carl Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer. Anderson and Neddermeyer identify (from cosmic rays) both positively and negatively charged particles with a mass in between that of an electron and proton (120-400 electron masses), which they name a "mesotron", but which will later be called "meson" {meZoN}, and currently a "mu" meson or "muon".	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
62 YBN [06/22/1938 AD]	5448) The first image of a virus is captured by brothers Ernst and Helmut Ruska. Viruses are confirmed to be about 150 nm in size.	(Berliner Medizinischen Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society) Berlin, Germany
62 YBN [09/01/1938 AD]	5355) The theory that if a star is massive enough it will contract indefinitely.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
62 YBN [09/07/1938 AD]	5418) The theory that a nuclear reaction powers stars by fusing hydrogen atoms into a helium atom, the remaining mass being released as energy.	(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute) Berlin, Germany (and Cornell University) Ithaca, New York, USA
62 YBN [10/25/1938 AD]	5352) The theory that the Earth's magnetic field is caused by the Earth's rotation, which creates eddy currents in the liquid core. An eddy current is an electric current induced within the body of a conductor when that conductor either moves through a nonuniform magnetic field or is in a region where there is a change in magnetic flux.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
62 YBN [11/24/1938 AD]	5464) The physiologically active substance of the plant cannabis indica (marijuana) is isolated, later named tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).	(Lister Institute) London, England
62 YBN [12/22/1938 AD]	4926) Barium (atomic number 56) is found in products of uranium bombarded by neutrons.	(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany
61 YBN [01/06/1939 AD]	5484) A high frequency electronic oscillator and amplifier, the "klystron".	(Stanford University) Stanford, California, USA
61 YBN [01/16/1939 AD]	4925) The atomic fission of uranium by neutrons is first recognized.	(Academy of Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden (Meitner), (University of Copenhagen), Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch)
61 YBN [03/20/1939 AD]	5347) The theory that a red giant star forms when a star has no hydrogen fuel remaining in its core to use and so expands in size, and this also includes a theory of stellar explosions (novas).	(George Washington University) Washington, D.C., USA
61 YBN [04/07/1939 AD]	5195) That the fission of a uranium atom induced by one neutron, produces, on the average, an emission of several neutrons is shown.	(Laboratoire de Chimie Nucleaire, College de France) Paris, France
61 YBN [04/30/1939 AD]	5835) The bipedal (or two leg walking) robot, "Elektro" by Westinghouse.	(Westinghouse Electric Corporation) Mansfield, Ohio, USA
61 YBN [06/28/1939 AD]	5006) The theory that the particular isotope uranium-235 is the atom that undergoes fission.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
61 YBN [07/15/1939 AD]	5461) Element 91, Protactinium is fissioned with fast neutrons.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
61 YBN [07/31/1939 AD]	5511) He3 is produced, an isotope of Helium that contains 2 protons and 1 neutron.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
61 YBN [08/27/1939 AD]	6269) The first jet aircraft flight.	Marienehe, Germany
61 YBN [10/30/1939 AD]	5387) The magnetic moment of a neutron is measured, and the deuteron magnetic moment is found to equal the sum of the magnetic moments of the neutron and the proton.	(Stanford University) Stanford, California, USA
61 YBN [1939 AD]	5219) DDT is found to be a highly effective poison against several arthropods. In modern times, the use of DDT is restricted or banned as a potential pollutant.	(Laboratory of the J.R. Geigy Dye-Factory Co.) Basel, Switzerland
61 YBN [1939 AD]	5248) That some single nerve fibers respond only to a narrow band of light frequencies (colors) is shown.	(The Caroline Institute) Stockholm, Sweden (presumably)
60 YBN [02/01/1940 AD]	5246) The "Citric-Acid" cycle is further developed. This cycle describes how lactic acid (broken down from carbohydrates) is separated further into carbon dioxide and water in animal tissues.	(University of Sheffield) Sheffield, England
60 YBN [02/29/1940 AD]	5579) Carbon-14 is isolated and found to have a long half-life; in years. The modern estimate is 5,700 years.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
60 YBN [03/03/1940 AD]	5462) That uranium-235 produces far more fissions per minute than uranium-238 is demonstrated.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
60 YBN [05/28/1940 AD]	5285) Uranium and thorium are fissioned by γ-rays. This is the first fissioning of large atoms with light particles.	(Westinghouse Research Laboratories) East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
60 YBN [06/14/1940 AD]	5568) The spontaneous fission of uranium is observed.	(Physico Technical Institute and Radium Institute) Leningrad, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
60 YBN [06/21/1940 AD]	5554) Carbon ions are accelerated in a cyclotron.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
60 YBN [07/16/1940 AD]	5365) Element 85, astatine is created and identified. Astatine has a half life of 7.5 hours, and like technetium has no stable isotopes.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
60 YBN [08/24/1940 AD]	5217) An anti-bacterial form of the fungus Penicillin is isolated and purified and found to be effective against at least three kinds of bacteria in mice.	(University of Oxford) Oxford, England
60 YBN [11/13/1940 AD]	5524) A circular electron accelerator (betatron) is built which creates artificial gamma rays.	(General Electric Company) Scotia, New York, USA
60 YBN [12/02/1940 AD]	5439) The first color television images are broadcast.	(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.) New York City, New York, USA
60 YBN [12/05/1940 AD]	5416) Penicillinase is identified, an enzyme that catalyzes the destruction of penicillin.	(Oxford Univerity) Oxford, England
60 YBN [1940 AD]	5463) The gas-diffusion method of separating uranium isotopes is developed, where uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas is passed through filters to separate the lighter U-235 from U-238.	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
59 YBN [01/23/1941 AD]	5580) That the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis comes from the water molecule and not from carbon dioxide is proven by using oxygen-18, a stable but rare oxygen isotope.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
59 YBN [02/24/1941 AD]	5283) Uranium is fissioned by Alpha-Particles under 32 Mev.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
59 YBN [03/22/1941 AD]	5271) That using estrogen to block male hormones can slow the growth of prostate cancer, and that removing the ovaries and adrenal glands, which produce estrogen, can reverse tumor growth in some breast cancers is found.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
59 YBN [05/28/1941 AD]	5477) A three-dimensional (stereoscopic) image is produced using light polarization (or planarization) by superimposing two offset images, one projected with light polarized in the x-plane and the other with light polarized in the y-plane, as seen when one eye has an x-plane polarizer and the other eye has a y-plane polarizer.	(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
59 YBN [10/08/1941 AD]	5331) That a gene controls the production of a particular enzyme is shown by using x-rays to create a genetic mutation in the fungus Neurospora (bread mold) which results in the Neurospora failing to synthesize vitamin B6 and other molecules. In addition this mutation is shown to be inherited.	(Stanford University) Stanford, California, USA
59 YBN [1941 AD]	5066) From the parallax of the asteroid Eros, the distance from the Earth to the Sun is calculated to be approximately 149 million km (93 million miles).	(Royal Observatory in Greenwich) Greenwich, England
59 YBN [1941 AD]	5149) Supernovas are divided into two kinds based on their spectra.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
59 YBN [1941 AD]	6648) The first polyester plastic, "Terylene".	(Calico Printers' Association, Ltd.) England
58 YBN [03/12/1942 AD]	5428) The first detailed image of a virus is captured.	(RCA Research Laboratories) Camden, New Jersey, USA
58 YBN [05/08/1942 AD]	5526) The first radio maps of the visible universe.	Wheaton, Illinois, USA
58 YBN [07/??/1942 AD]	5363) CH2, (methylene) is detected in the emission spectrum of comets.	(University of Saskatchewan) Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
58 YBN [07/??/1942 AD]	5378) The theory, based on planet densities and atmospheric composition, that Jupiter and the other giant planets have a deep and dense atmosphere, with a thick shell of ice on top of an interior of rock and metal.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
58 YBN [10/20/1942 AD]	5546) The isotope uranium-233 is isolated. Uranium-233 can be prepared from thorium, and like uranium-235 can undergo fission, and so is a valuable nuclear fuel. So thorium can be added to uranium as a potential fuel.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
58 YBN [10/??/1942 AD]	5534) Liquid fuel missiles.	Peenemünde, Germany
58 YBN [11/04/1942 AD]	5289) The first explicit claim that a planet of a different star is detected. From small changes in the relative movement of the star 61 Cygni observed on photographic plates, a planet estimated to be 1/60th the mass of the Sun, and sixteen times more massive than Jupiter, a mass too low to be a star.	(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, USA
58 YBN [11/04/1942 AD]	5290) The influence of a planet 8 times the mass of Jupiter is detected around the small star Lalande 21185.	(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, USA
58 YBN [12/02/1942 AD]	5277) A self-sustained uranium fission reaction. Cadmium rods are slowly withdrawn from a pile of graphite blocks with uranium inside, and the first uranium fission chain reaction becomes self-sustaining driven only by neutrons spontaneously emitted by uranium.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
58 YBN [1942 AD]	5441) The roots, leaves and juice of the "Rauwolfia serpentina" plant in India is found to lowers blood pressure. This leads to the first tranquilizer drugs.	(K. E. M. Medical College) Lucknow, India
57 YBN [05/14/1943 AD]	5264) The molecule biotin is synthesized.	(Merck and Company, Inc.) Rahway, New Jersey, USA
57 YBN [05/25/1943 AD]	5578) Changes in light absorption spectral lines are used to determine that molecular changes have occurred.	(University of Pennsylvania) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
57 YBN [09/??/1943 AD]	5280) The synchrotron accelerator; stable circulating particle orbits are increased in energy by a resonant acceleration that results from a variation of the magnetic field, of the frequency of the accelerating electric field, or of both.	(University of Birmingham) Birmingham, England
57 YBN [11/01/1943 AD]	4916) The DNA molecule is recognized as being responsible for the creation and inheritance of structural changes in a body by Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty. That DNA can cause structural changes to a bacterium which are then passed onto later generations is proven.	(Rockefeller Institute, now called Rockefeller University) New York City, New York, USA
57 YBN [1943 AD]	4949) That direct electrical stimulation to the brain with metal electrodes can cause cats to become enraged or scared is shown.	(University of Zurich), Zurich, Switzerland
57 YBN [1943 AD]	5050) An antibiotic is isolated that is effective against gram-negative bacteria (penicillin only kills gram-positive bacteria) from a streptomyces mold and is named streptomycin.	(Rutgers University) New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
57 YBN [1943 AD]	5399) The theory of Quantum electrodynamics (QED), which seeks to include Einstein's theory of relativity to the Bohr-Schroedinger model of the atom as described by quantum mechanics.	(Tokyo Bunrika University) Tokyo, Japan
57 YBN [1943 AD]	5488) The first fully automatic compressed-air Aqua-Lung (a device that allows for breathing underwater) is developed.	Paris, France
56 YBN [04/27/1944 AD]	5121) The theory that stars can be divided in two types: type I stars, like the highly luminous O and B type stars and those of open clusters, and type II stars, like the short-period Cepheids and globular clusters.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA
56 YBN [05/13/1944 AD]	5481) Paper partition chromatography is invented, which allows the identification of the number and type of amino acids in protein molecules.	(Wool Industries Research Association) Torridon, Headingley, Leeds, UK
56 YBN [07/08/1944 AD]	5429) Spontaneous mutations are found to occur in both bacteriophages and the bacteria cells they invade.	(Indiana University) Bloomington, Indiana, USA
56 YBN [07/17/1944 AD]	5186) A thin film of metal is sprayed from the side over objects in an electron microscope field, which forms a metal-free area behind each object and creates a three-dimensional image in the electron microscope.	(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
56 YBN [08/21/1944 AD]	5389) Titan, a moon of Saturn is found to have an atmosphere, and from infrared absorption lines both Titan and Saturn are shown to contain methane, and possibly ammonia.	(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke) Fort Davis, Texas, USA
56 YBN [11/08/1944 AD]	5675) The alkaloid quinine is synthesized.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
56 YBN [11/11/1944 AD]	5227) The endoplasmic reticulum is identified (in chick embryo cells) using an electron microscope.	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
56 YBN [1944 AD]	5405) A low-velocity sound channel in the ocean at a depth of 700–1,300 meters is found and called the SOFAR (Sound Fixing and Ranging) channel. At this depth the sound from the explosion of a small charge dropped off the west coast of Africa can be detected as far away as the Bahamas.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
55 YBN [04/15/1945 AD]	5303) Chemicals are separated by ion-exchange chromatography. in which a mineral or resin absorbs one kind of ion while releasing another kind of ion. Using this method lanthanoids can be obtained in substantial quantities for the first time.	(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA
55 YBN [06/30/1945 AD]	5334) The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) is designed.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
55 YBN [06/??/1945 AD]	5699) The theory that 21-cm radio waves are produced by interstellar hydrogen atoms.	(University of Utrecht) Utrecht, Netherlands
55 YBN [07/13/1945 AD]	5426) Numerous members of the streptomycin group of antibiotics (including Waksman's streptomycin) are synthesized.	(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New Jersey, USA
55 YBN [07/16/1945 AD]	5311) The first atomic fission bomb is exploded. The first atomic fission bomb exploded is a plutonium bomb that compares to about 21,000 tons of TNT.	(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New Mexico, USA
55 YBN [08/31/1945 AD]	5692) A molecule 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (Sanger's reagent) is found to attach itself to one end of a chain of amino acids but not the other, and this is used to determine the order of amino acids in the insulin molecule.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
55 YBN [10/08/1945 AD]	6272) The microwave oven. High-frequency radio light is found to penetrate and excite certain types of molecules, such as those found in food. Microwave light is strong enough to cook food but not strong enough to alter its genetic structure or to make it radioactive.	(Raytheon Manufacturing Company) Newton, Massachusetts, USA
55 YBN [11/20/1945 AD]	5368) Norepinephrin (noradreneline) is discovered and shown, like epinephrin (adrenelin) to raise heart rate, blood-pressure, and is also a neurotransmitter.	(Karolinischen Institues) Stockholm, Sweden
55 YBN [1945 AD]	5312) Neutrons are reflected off mirrors at very small incidence angles.	(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois
55 YBN [1945 AD]	5410) Sonar is used to measure the oceans to the deepest depth to date, about seven miles (11 km) deep.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
54 YBN [01/10/1946 AD]	5528) Radio light is reflected off the moon and received back on Earth.	Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, USA
54 YBN [02/??/1946 AD]	5459) ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer is completed.	(University of Pennsylvania) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
54 YBN [05/27/1946 AD]	5411) Hundreds of flat-topped mountains are discovered on the Pacific floor, which are named "guyots" (GEOS), their tops are eroded, but they are 2 kilometers under water.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
54 YBN [06/01/1946 AD]	5472) Radio-carbon dating. That the isotopes H3 (tritium), He3, and C14, produced by cosmic-ray neutrons, can be used to determine the age of the Earth's atmosphere, surface, and living matter is recognized.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
54 YBN [06/24/1946 AD]	5430) That the genetic material of different viruses can be combined to form a new and different virus is found.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
54 YBN [07/15/1946 AD]	5373) Cosmic rays are measured above the Earth's atmosphere by a rocket with coincidence counters.	(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory) Washington, D. C., USA
54 YBN [08/22/1946 AD]	5697) Multiple telescopes are used in parallel to observe a larger area. This technique is called "interferometry" being thought to be analogous to Michelson's method for determining stellar diameter.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
54 YBN [08/??/1946 AD]	5314) The electric potential of a single frog nerve cell (neuron) is measured to be 62 mV.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, illinois, USA
54 YBN [09/13/1946 AD]	5349) The theory that the elements were formed in the early stages of an expanding universe.	(George Washington University) Washington, D.C., USA
54 YBN [09/17/1946 AD]	5742) Sexual reproduction (conjugation) is found in bacteria (E. Coli).	(Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA
54 YBN [10/10/1946 AD]	3848) The first solar spectrum is captured from the upper atmosphere by a rocket. This spectrum confirms that the atmosphere of Earth absorbs light with ultraviolet frequency.	(White Sands proving area) New Mexico, USA
54 YBN [11/13/1946 AD]	5419) Human-made falling snow and photomicrographs of ice crystals are captured.	(General Electric Research Laboratory) Schenectady, New York, USA
54 YBN [12/21/1946 AD]	5537) The negative mesotron is shown not to react with the atomic nucleus which casts doubt on the theory that the mesotron is related to a theoretical nuclear force.	(University of Rome) Rome, Italy
53 YBN [01/08/1947 AD]	5340) An image of the track of a meson (which will be called a pi-meson, or "pion").	(Imperial College of Science and Technology) London, England
53 YBN [01/09/1947 AD]	5443) A "breeder" atomic fission chain-reaction reactor; a reactor that produces more fuel than it consumes by surrounding the core with atoms like Thorium-232 and Uranium-238, so that neutrons from the core convert these to Uranium-233 and Plutonium-239, respectively, which can be used as fission fuel.	Chicago, Illinois, USA
53 YBN [01/10/1947 AD]	5404) Small, round, dense, and dark nebulae with diameters between 10,000 and 35,000 A.U. are observed in M8 (the Lagoon Nebula) which are thought to represent the evolutionary stage just before the formation of a star.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
53 YBN [01/10/1947 AD]	5581) That radar (a radio echo) can be used to see meteor showers, and that meteors can even be seen with radar during daylight is shown.	(University of Manchester: Jodrell Bank) Cheshire, England
53 YBN [01/27/1947 AD]	5335) Neutron beams of a single frequency (monochromatic) are made by using a mechanical filter and found to follow Bragg's law when scatter from crystals.	(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois, USA
53 YBN [02/07/1947 AD]	5337) Interference effects are produced with neutron beams.	(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois
53 YBN [02/17/1947 AD]	5478) An "instant" camera, which produces developed photographs shortly after they are taken.	(Polaroid Corporation) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
53 YBN [03/17/1947 AD]	5588) That seeding clouds with silver iodide crystals can also cause rain is discovered.	(General Electric Research Laboratory) Schenectady, New York, USA
53 YBN [06/18/1947 AD]	5402) Two electron states (or shells) of the hydrogen atom are measured to have different resonant electron frequencies, and this contradicts the theory of Paul Dirac that presumes these two states to have the same energy. This is called the "Lamb shift".	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
53 YBN [06/26/1947 AD]	5550) Elements 73 (tantalum) through 83 (bismuth) are fissioned with deuterons, helium ions or neutrons in a 184-inch (14 foot) frequency-modulated cyclotron with energies up to 400 Mev. Fission is determined by chemical identification of radioactive fission products.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
53 YBN [08/31/1947 AD]	5582) Radio echos are captured off of an Aurora Borealis.	(University of Manchester: Jodrell Bank) Cheshire, England
53 YBN [08/31/1947 AD]	5583) A radio interferometer is used to determine that some extra-terrestrial radio sources are no more than 6 seconds of arc in diameter.	(University of Manchester: Jodrell Bank) Cheshire, England
53 YBN [10/14/1947 AD]	5603) An airplane moves faster than the speed of sound in air.	(over Rogers Dry Lake) Edwards, California, USA
53 YBN [10/16/1947 AD]	5589) The intensity of cosmic rays is found to be constant after 55 km (34 miles) altitude.	(Johns Hopkins University) Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
53 YBN [12/20/1947 AD]	5543) The K meson is identified, the first "strange" particle.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
53 YBN [1947 AD]	5241) A holographic image; a beam of monochromatic light is split in two, one part reflects off an object with all the irregularities of the object, but the second is reflected from a mirror and the two parts then meet at the photograph and the parts of the two beams in phase are amplified. Light shown through the film produces a three dimensional image.	(Research Laboratory, British Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd.) Rugby, England
53 YBN [1947 AD]	5390) Carbon dioxide is detected as a major component of the atmosphere of Mars and the polar caps are found to consist of water frost.	(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke) Fort Davis, Texas, USA
53 YBN [1947 AD]	5465) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is sythesized.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
52 YBN [01/15/1948 AD]	5500) Sodium and potassium ions are shown to move into and out of nerve and muscle cells to create and remove electrical potentials.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
52 YBN [02/16/1948 AD]	5391) The fifth satellite of Uranus is identified and named "Miranda".	(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke) Fort Davis, Texas, USA
52 YBN [03/10/1948 AD]	3337) An electric spark is shown to develop, in the same way as lightning does, in two stages, a pilot (lighted stream) followed by a leader (a larger lighted stream).	(Associated Electrical Industries) Aldermaston, Berkshire, England
52 YBN [03/12/1948 AD]	5538) Pi Mesons (pions) are produced by a particle accelerator.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
52 YBN [04/16/1948 AD]	5417) The theory that the atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons arranged in shells, similarly to the way electrons are arranged in the outer atom, and this theory makes it possible to explain why some nuclei are more stable than others, and why some elements are rich in isotopes.	(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois
52 YBN [04/16/1948 AD]	5427) Vitamin B12 is isolated and shown to have a strongly positive response to pernicious anemia.	(Merck and Company, Inc) Rahway, New Jersey, USA
52 YBN [06/17/1948 AD]	5295) The semiconductor transistor (or solid-state electric switch and amplifier) by US physicists Walter Brattain and John Bardeen.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA
52 YBN [06/18/1948 AD]	5440) Long-playing (LP), 33 rotations per minute phonographic records are sold to the public.	(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.) New York City, New York, USA
52 YBN [06/21/1948 AD]	6551) The first computer to run a stored program.	(Electrical Engineering Laboratories at the University of Manchester) Manchester, England
52 YBN [07/13/1948 AD]	5704) The "steady-state" theory of the universe, in which the universe expands but new matter is created to balance the expansion.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
52 YBN [09/27/1948 AD]	5645) The theory that both protons and neutrons are made of a central core of positively charged matter surrounded by two shells of mesonic matter. In the proton the meson shells are both positively charged, and in the neutron the shells are negatively charged so that the overall charge is zero.	(Stanford University) Stanford, California, USA
52 YBN [1948 AD]	4774) Aureomycin is discovered, the first of the tetracycline antibiotics, a family of antibiotics that after penicillin represent the most useful and least dangerous of the antibiotics.	(American Cyanamid Company) Ontario, Canada (presumably)
52 YBN [1948 AD]	5015) The hormone cortisone is successfully applied to treat rheumatoid arthritis.	(Mayo Foundation) Rochester, Minnesota, USA
52 YBN [1948 AD]	5168) The mumps virus is successfully cultured by using penicillin to stop bacteria growth.	(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston, Massachusetts, USA
52 YBN [1948 AD]	6273) The hook and loop fastener (Velcro).	Nyon, Switzerland
51 YBN [01/28/1949 AD]	5169) The polio virus is successfully cultured.	(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston, Massachusetts, USA
51 YBN [02/02/1949 AD]	5494) The average life span of a circulating red blood cell is found to be around 100 days.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
51 YBN [03/??/1949 AD]	5375) The x-ray microscope.	(Stanford University) Stanford, California, USA
51 YBN [05/01/1949 AD]	5392) A second satellite of Neptune is identified and named "Nereid".	(McDonald Observatory, Mount Locke) Fort Davis, Texas, USA
51 YBN [06/26/1949 AD]	5122) The asteroid "Icarus" is identified. Icarus is the innermost asteroid known; closer to the Sun than Mercury.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA
51 YBN [07/27/1949 AD]	6270) The first large passenger jet airplane (or jetliner) flies.	Hatfield, England
51 YBN [08/01/1949 AD]	5406) That the Earth's crust below the oceans is only about 3–5 miles (5–8 km) thick while the corresponding continental crust averages 25 miles (40 km) thick is established by using the seismic reflection of explosives.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
51 YBN [08/06/1949 AD]	5198) The technique of "flash photolysis" and "kinetic spectroscopy" is developed to study the intermediate stages involved in extremely rapid chemical reactions.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
51 YBN [10/10/1949 AD]	5539) A neutral Meson is identified.	(University of Rochester) Rochester, New York, USA
51 YBN [11/17/1949 AD]	5495) Carbon-14 is used as a biological tracer to work out the details of how the heme molecule, the iron-containing molecule that gives blood its red color, is synthesized by the red blood cell, and combines with a protein globin, the entire molecule being called hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to tissue cells.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
51 YBN [11/23/1949 AD]	5434) A new comet model in which the nucleus is a combination of ices such as H2O, NH3, CH4, CO2, or CO, (C2N2) and other materials combined with meteoric materials. Vaporization of the ices by solar radiation leaves an outer layer of nonvolatile insulating meteoric material, vaporized ices being emitted away from the comet's motion causing a loss in mass.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
51 YBN [11/24/1949 AD]	5228) That antibodies are only formed after birth is demonstrated.	(Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research) Melbourne, Australia
51 YBN [11/25/1949 AD]	5258) The particular defect in hemoglobin’s structure that is responsible for sickle-cell anemia is identified making sickle-cell anemia the first "molecular disease" to be discovered.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
51 YBN [12/23/1949 AD]	5475) Radioactive carbon-14 dating is shown to produce similar results to other methods of age estimation.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
51 YBN [1949 AD]	5458) Succinylcholine is shown to produce neuromuscular blocking action which prevents a person from contracting a muscle.	(Istituto Superiore di Sanita/Superior Institute of Health) Rome, Italy
51 YBN [1949 AD]	5466) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
51 YBN [1949 AD]	5467) The molecular structure of penicillin is determined using monochromatic x-ray reflection (also called x-ray "diffraction").	(Oxford University) Oxford, England
50 YBN [01/13/1950 AD]	5237) The theory that there is a cloud of about 100 billion comets with a radius between 50,000 and 150,000 Astronomical Units (or A.U.; the average distance between the Sun and Earth) based on the observation of long-period comets. This is almost to the nearest star around 275,000 AU, Neptune being only around 31 AU.	(Observatory at Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands
50 YBN [01/23/1950 AD]	5551) Element 97, berkelium is created and identified by colliding helium ions with americium-241 in a 60-inch cyclotron.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
50 YBN [03/07/1950 AD]	5127) That the abundance of the O18 isotope in calcium carbonate varies with the temperature at which it is deposited from water and so can be used to create a temperature history of the past is recognized.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
50 YBN [03/15/1950 AD]	5552) Element 98, californium is created and identified by colliding 35-Mev helium ions with curium-242 in a 60-inch cyclotron.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
50 YBN [03/15/1950 AD]	5553) The fission of medium atomic mass elements. Medium atomic mass elements (copper, bromine, silver, and tin) are fissioned by 70 million electron-volt protons into atoms with approximately half the mass of the original particle. Identification is made through chemical separation, measurement of half-life with a Geiger counter, and observation of the sign of the beta-particles with a simple beta-ray spectrometer.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
50 YBN [04/21/1950 AD]	5592) The intensity of cosmic rays above the Earth's atmosphere are mapped from 0-70° degree latitude, which shows that the intensity increases from the equator (0°) to the higher latitudes.	(Johns Hopkins University) Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
50 YBN [04/26/1950 AD]	5542) Slow negative pi mesons are shown to cause nuclear reactions. Pi mesons colliding with carbon and nitrogen nuclei cause the ejection of neutrons, and an excited nucleus which then disintegrates, and in a few cases, the collision causes a total disruption of the nucleus and the ejection of fast alpha-particles.	(University of Bristol) Bristol, England
50 YBN [08/02/1950 AD]	5773) The resonant method of precise frequency detection: a gamma ray source of radioactive Mercury-198 is rotated quickly which Doppler shifts the emitted gamma rays increasing the frequency just enough to allow the gamma rays to be resonantly scattered by a receiver that is also Mercury-198, because the increased frequency compensates for energy lost in the recoil of the fluorescing atomic nucleus.	(University of Birmingham) Birmingham, England
50 YBN [09/11/1950 AD]	5555) The atomic fusion of large atoms. Accelerated carbon-12 ions are collided and fused with Aluminum-27 to produce Chlorine-34, and with Gold-197 produce Astatine-205 by Rossi et al.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
50 YBN [10/12/1950 AD]	5395) The theory that planets are formed by condensation of gaseous "protoplanets", the satellites being independent condensations, that planet formation is a special case of the process of binary star formation, and the number of stars with planets in the Milky Way is estimated to be 1 billion.	(Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA
50 YBN [10/16/1950 AD]	5259) That some proteins have a helix (or spiral) structure is determined.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
50 YBN [10/??/1950 AD]	5564) The "Turing test" is created, in which a person must decide if they are talking with a human or machine.	(University of Manchester) Manchester, England
50 YBN [1950 AD]	5297) A system of "optical pumping" is discovered where atoms of a gas or atomic beam are illuminated with "resonance radiation" (wavelengths of light which they are capable of absorbing). The atoms absorb the light and heat up momentarily reaching a high energy state and then emit the light again.	(Ecole Normale Superieure) Paris, France
50 YBN [1950 AD]	5298) That viruses can be coded in bacteria DNA and that ultraviolet light can change a non-lethal virus into a lethal virus that multiplies viruses and destroys the bacterium host cell is shown.	(Institut Pasteur) Paris, France
50 YBN [1950 AD]	5379) Paper chromatography is used to show that, in DNA, the number of purine bases (adenine and guanine) is always equal to the number of pyrimidine bases (cytosine and thymine), and also that the number of adenine bases is equal to the number of thymine bases, and the number of guanine bases equal to the number of cytosine bases.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
50 YBN [1950 AD]	5394) The theory that the asteroids between Mars and Jupiter are the result of the collision of two or more planets.	(Yerkes Observatory) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA
49 YBN [03/??/1951 AD]	5460) UNIVAC I, the first computer to read and write data to and from magnetic tape, and one of the earliest commercial computers is complete.	(Remington Rand) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
49 YBN [05/05/1951 AD]	5664) That the quantity of x-rays from the Sun increases with altitude is determined by using a rocket.	(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory) Washington, D. C., USA
49 YBN [05/08/1951 AD]	5097) A map of the fourth and smallest of the fruit fly chromosomes.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
49 YBN [06/05/1951 AD]	5482) Gas-liquid partition chromatography is developed: the compressibility of a gas is used to separate molecules in a vapor from a heated liquid as the gas carries the molecules from the gas-liquid partition down a long thin column.	(National Institute for Medical Research) Mill Hill, London, UK
49 YBN [06/14/1951 AD]	5566) The predicted 21-centimeter (1,420 MHz) microwave emission of neutral hydrogen atoms in interstellar space are detected.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
49 YBN [08/27/1951 AD]	5516) The Field-Ion Microscope (FIM). The polarity of the Field Emission microscope is reversed, so the needle in this microscope is at a positive potential in low pressure inert gas.	(Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry) Berlin-Dahlem, Germany
49 YBN [10/??/1951 AD]	5505) The "fatty acid cycle" is recognized; how fatty acids are broken down in digestion.	(University of Munich {Munchen}) Munich, Germany (presumably)
49 YBN [11/11/1951 AD]	6274) The first demonstration of moving images recorded on magnetic tape (videotape).	Los Angeles, California, USA
49 YBN [11/29/1951 AD]	5610) The first underground nuclear explosive test.	(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA
49 YBN [12/20/1951 AD]	5444) The first atomic fission reactor to produce electricity. The heat from uranium fission heats water to make steam which drives an electrical generator.	(Experimental Breeder Reactor-1) Arco, Idaho (verify)
49 YBN [1951 AD]	3338) A high speed photograph of the spark "pilot streamer", (the first stream of light that connects two electrodes) is captured.
49 YBN [1951 AD]	5152) The idea of holding hot plasma (electrically charged atom fragments) in place by a magnetic field to try to use hydrogen to helium atomic fusion for electricity production.	Volga region, (Soviet Union) Russia
49 YBN [1951 AD]	5302) An electronic computer is used to estimate the location of the five outer planets from 1653 to 2060.
49 YBN [1951 AD]	5876) That some genes are "controlling genes" that can activate or or turn off another gene, and that can control the rate at which a gene is switched on and off is discovered.	(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA
48 YBN [03/10/1952 AD]	5584) The "sodium pump" mechanism of a nerve impulse transmission: when a nerve impulse passes, sodium ions flood into the cell and potassium ions move out, and once the nerve impulse has past, sodium ions are pumped out of the cell and potassium ions move back into the cell.	(University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
48 YBN [03/21/1952 AD]	5655) Infrared light with a sharply peaked frequency is produced by "carrier injection" (applying an electric current) to germanium or to silicon. This will lead to the first semiconductor laser.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA (presumably in New Jersey)
48 YBN [04/02/1952 AD]	5743) Gender is found in a bacteria (E. Coli).	(University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan, Italy
48 YBN [04/04/1952 AD]	5677) The first non-aromatic steriod is synthesized which allows the synthesis of many steroids including cholesterol and cortisone.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
48 YBN [04/09/1952 AD]	5431) That the nucleic acids of a bacteriophage that enter the bacterium cell carry the genetic message, and not the protein associated with the bacteriophage is shown.	(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York, USA
48 YBN [04/14/1952 AD]	5541) That "spin" for nuclear particles is a useful and valid quantum number is experimentally confirmed when examining the results of the scattering and capture of pions in liquid hydrogen. This finding will be referred to as the "pion-nucleon resonance".	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
48 YBN [05/19/1952 AD]	5218) The plastic polyethylene is improved by using organometallic catalysts which prevent branching in the polyethylene molecule making it a much stronger plastic with a higher melting point allowing it to be soaked in hot water without softening.	(Max-Planck-Institute for Coal Research), Mulheim-Ruhr, Germany
48 YBN [06/12/1952 AD]	5757) A bubble-chamber particle detector is invented; similar to a cloud-chamber but with a liquid.	(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
48 YBN [07/16/1952 AD]	5693) The order of amino acids in (bovine) insulin is determined.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
48 YBN [07/19/1952 AD]	5442) A crystalline alkaloid is isolated from the roots of the plant Rauwolfia serpentina Benth and named "reserpine". This is the first of the tranquilizers.	(Ciba Aktiengesellschaft) Basel, Switzerland
48 YBN [08/??/1952 AD]	5591) Rockets are launched from high altitude balloons.	(Coast Guard Cutter ship
48 YBN [11/01/1952 AD]	5470) The first hydrogen fusion bomb is exploded.	(Elugelab Island in the Enewatak Atoll of the) Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean
48 YBN [12/01/1952 AD]	5782) The first "hyperon" particle is identified, the Λ0 particle. Hyperons are particles more massive than protons or neutrons and hold together for a trillionth of a second.	(University of Warsaw) Warsaw, Poland
48 YBN [1952 AD]	5123) The most distant galaxies are estimated to be 5 to 6 billion light years away.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA
48 YBN [1952 AD]	5407) The theory that submarine canyons (deep rifts in the continental shelf, or relatively shallow ocean area around the perimeter of the continents) are formed by turbulent undersea flows of mud and sediment, and not by rivers running at a time when the sea was much lower.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
48 YBN [1952 AD]	5670) Antibodies are identified that cause the agglutination (clumping together) of white blood cells from other people but are inactive on a person's own white blood cells.	(Centre National de Transfusion Sanguine) Paris, France. (presumably)
47 YBN [02/13/1953 AD]	5786) Amino acids are synthesized by circulating methane, ammonia, water and hydrogen past an electric discharge to simulate the early atmosphere of Earth.	(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
47 YBN [02/26/1953 AD]	5397) The Perseus, Orion, and Sagittarius arms of the Milky Way Galaxy are identified, by searching for clouds of hydrogen ionized by O and B stars. This provides good evidence for the spiral structure of our galaxy.	(Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA
47 YBN [04/02/1953 AD]	5660) The double helix structure of DNA is understood by Francis Crick and James Watson. The DNA molecule is a double helix made of a sugar-phosphate backbone, with the connected nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine or guanine) extending toward the center of the helix from each of the two backbones. The double helix form requires that an adenine can only pair with a thymine, and a cytosine can only pair with a guanine. The process of replication can now be explained as the two strands of the double helix being unwound, and each single helix then serves as a model for its complement.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
47 YBN [05/29/1953 AD]	5700) A human reaches the top of Mount Everest, the highest point of Earth (29,035 feet) (8,850 meters).	Mount Everest, border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
47 YBN [06/19/1953 AD]	5124) A radio source in the constellation of Cygnus is shown to be from a distant galaxy.	(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA
47 YBN [07/09/1953 AD]	5690) A neutrino is detected.	(Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, University of California) Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
47 YBN [07/12/1953 AD]	5781) Subatomic particles are categorized by mass.	(Cosmic ray conference) Bagneres de Bigorre, France
47 YBN [09/30/1953 AD]	5671) A test to detect the white blood cell agglutinating properties of blood serum is developed.	(Centre National de Transfusion Sanguine) Paris, France.
47 YBN [10/03/1953 AD]	5646) Animals and birds are found to have "actively acquired tolerance" of foreign cells (for example, will not reject a skin graft) if the animal or bird is exposed to the foreign cells early enough in their life.	(University College, University of London) London, England
47 YBN [1953 AD]	5172) The varicella-zoster virus is isolated from cases of chickenpox and zoster and the same virus shown to be the responsible for both diseases.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
46 YBN [01/21/1954 AD]	5230) The first nuclear powered submarine is launched. The fuel supply of uranium lasts for months without the need to surface to recharge batteries.	Thames River, Connecticut, USA
46 YBN [03/05/1954 AD]	5586) Attaching a heavy atom to a molecule makes the x-ray reflection pattern easier to interpret.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
46 YBN [04/28/1954 AD]	5265) The first naturally occurring protein and hormone is synthesized, oxytocin.	(Cornell University Medical College) New York City, New York, USA
46 YBN [04/28/1954 AD]	5577) Amino acids are found still intact in 365 million year old fossils.	(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Washington, D. C, USA
46 YBN [05/05/1954 AD]	5649) The maser ("microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation") is invented by Gordon, Zeiger, and Townes and independently by Soviet physicists Basov and Prokhorov. A beam of ammonia molecules emerges through a hole, passes through an electrostatic field made by four electrodes, which puts their electrons into an upper state as they enter into a cavity. An electric potential of varying frequency is transmitted through the cavity and at the molecular transition frequency an emission line is seen. This beam can induce the transition to light emission in the molecules entering the cavity and cause self-sustained oscillations with a very stable frequency. So the MASER can be used as a very stable oscillator (or atomic clock), as an amplifier of microwaves near a molecular resonance, and as a microwave spectrometer.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
46 YBN [06/10/1954 AD]	5691) The highest known temperature of superconductivity (18.05° K) is found in in an alloy of nobium and tin (Nb3Sn).	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA
46 YBN [06/27/1954 AD]	5310) The first uranium fission electric station for civilian use.	Obninsk, Russia (Soviet Union)(verify)
46 YBN [07/06/1954 AD]	5520) The complete structure of the enzyme ribonuclease is determined.	(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
46 YBN [08/17/1954 AD]	5594) Radiation made of electrons emitting from aurora borealis is detected by with geiger counters in rockets.	(University of Iowa) Iowa City, Iowa, USA
46 YBN [08/23/1954 AD]	5678) The complicated and poisonous alkaloid strychnine is synthesized.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
46 YBN [08/23/1954 AD]	5679) Lysergic acid (found to influence neurological function) is synthesized.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
46 YBN [10/21/1954 AD]	5250) A single neuron is made to fire by electrical stimulation (direct neuron writing).	(Kyoto University) Kyoto, Japan
46 YBN [12/10/1954 AD]	5315) Polypropene (also known as polypropene) is synthesized. Polyproene is a synthetic thermoplastic resin made by the polymerization of propylene that is molded, extruded, or spun into many plastic products.	(Polytechnic of Milan) Milan, Italy
46 YBN [1954 AD]	5170) The virus that causes measles is cultured.	(Boston Children's Hospital) Boston, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)
46 YBN [1954 AD]	5322) The first known insect hormone, "ecdysone", is crystallized and found, like human hormones, to be a derivative of cholesterol.	(Max Planck Institute) Munich, Germany
46 YBN [1954 AD]	5323) Progesterone and related compounds are found to prevent ovulation (discharge of an ovum or ovule from the ovary) in humans. This leads to the first birth control pill for humans.	(Worchester Foundation for Experimental Biology) Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, USA
45 YBN [02/18/1955 AD]	5686) The "lysosome" is identified, an organelle within cells which contains digestive enzymes.	(University of Louvain) Louvain, Belgium
45 YBN [02/26/1955 AD]	5661) The nucleic acid molecule in the tobacco mosaic virus is shown to exist inside a helical array of repeated protein units on the outside.	(Birkbeck College) London, England
45 YBN [04/07/1955 AD]	5384) An enzyme that can synthesize and breakdown polynucleotides is discovered and named "polynucleotide phophorylase".	(New York University) New York City, New York, USA
45 YBN [04/15/1955 AD]	5727) Jupiter is found to emit light with radio frequencies.	(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Washington, D. C., USA
45 YBN [04/18/1955 AD]	5558) Element 101, mendelevium is synthesized.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
45 YBN [06/17/1955 AD]	5491) The tobacco mosaic virus is broken into its noninfectious protein and its nearly noninfectious nucleic acid components and, the two parts are recombined to make the fully infective virus.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
45 YBN [06/20/1955 AD]	5557) The elements 99 "einsteinium" and 100 "fermium".	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
45 YBN [06/24/1955 AD]	5304) Ion-exchange is used to separate different isotopes of the same element, producing almost pure nitrogen-15 by the hundreds of grams.	(Iowa State College) Iowa, USA
45 YBN [08/20/1955 AD]	5468) The structure of vitamin B12 is determined by using monochromatic x-ray reflection.	(Oxford University) Oxford, England
45 YBN [08/22/1955 AD]	5710) The principle of radioimmunoassay (RIA) is discovered: an extremely sensitive technique for measuring minute quantities of biologically active substances, such as a hormone or a drug, by comparing the quantity of binding, or the inhibition of binding, of a radiolabeled substance to an antibody.	(Veterans Administration Hospital) Bronx, New York, USA
45 YBN [10/24/1955 AD]	5366) The antiproton is identified by Emilio Segrè (SAGrA) with Owen Chamberlain by the impact of very high speed protons on copper atoms.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
45 YBN [11/15/1955 AD]	5567) Microsomes, cell bodies thought to be fragments of mitochondria, are shown to have a high ribonucleic acid (RNA) content. Because of this microsomes will be named "ribosomes".	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
44 YBN [01/23/1956 AD]	5762) The idea of colliding similarly charged accelerated particles into each other, as opposed to into a fixed target is published.	(University of Illinois) Champaign, Illinois, USA
44 YBN [02/18/1956 AD]	5760) The theory that some molecule must function in between each amino acid and a nucleic acid in protein synthesis. This molecule will later be shown to be T-RNA.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
44 YBN [03/??/1956 AD]	5688) A bacteria enzyme is found to synthesize DNA molecules using nucleotides and ATP. This enzyme will be isolated and named "polymerase" a year later in 1957.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
44 YBN [04/10/1956 AD]	5680) Reserpine is synthesized; the first of the tranquilizing drugs.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
44 YBN [04/23/1956 AD]	5761) The idea of particle "storage rings" to temporarily store moving charged particles, and also to raise two groups of similarly charged particles to high velocities and then collide them in head-on collisions at a point where the two rings intersect.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
44 YBN [04/??/1956 AD]	5082) The Hubble constant, a ratio expressing the rate of the apparent expansion of the universe, equal to the radial velocity of a galaxy divided by its distance from Earth, is determined to be 180 km/sec. In addition, the second image of the supposed shifted H and K calcium absorption lines is released to the public.	(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA
44 YBN [04/??/1956 AD]	5777) The concept of "strangeness" is introduced, which can explain the unexpected long life of certain mesons, and a new quantum variable "S" is introduced for the property of "strangeness".	(Institute for Advanced Study) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
44 YBN [04/??/1956 AD]	6275) The first practical magnetic videotape recorder is sold to the public.	(Ampex) San Carlos, California, USA (presumably)
44 YBN [06/22/1956 AD]	5723) The theory that "parity", the symmetry between physical phenomena occurring in right-handed and left-handed coordinate systems, is violated when certain elementary particles decay.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA and (Brookhaven National Laboratory) Upton, New York, USA
44 YBN [07/06/1956 AD]	5702) The design of a three-level (continuous) solid-state maser. The early maser of Townes could only work intermittently: once the electrons in the higher energy level have been stimulated they fall down to the lower energy level and nothing further can happen until they are raised to the higher level again. In the three-level maser, electrons are pumped to the highest level and stimulated. They consequently emit microwave radiation and fall down to the middle level where they can once more be stimulated and emit energy of a lower frequency. At the same time more electrons are being pumped from the lowest to the highest level making the process continuous.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
44 YBN [10/25/1956 AD]	5424) Vaccines which are effective against 3 different kinds of poliomyletis virus are created and tested.	( University of Cincinnati) Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
44 YBN [11/16/1956 AD]	5573) Human growth hormone (somatotropin) is isolated and its structure is shown to be different from the growth hormone of other species.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
44 YBN [12/03/1956 AD]	5703) The first solid maser (also the first multi-level and continuous maser).	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA
44 YBN [1956 AD]	5317) Humans are divided into thirteen groups based on blood-type.	(University of Boston) Boston, Massachusetts, USA
44 YBN [1956 AD]	5408) Sound reflection is used to show that the mid-Atlantic ridge is a mountain range extending throughout the oceans of the world and is some 64,000 km (40,000 miles) long.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
44 YBN [1956 AD]	6248) The compound Ibuprofin is synthesized which reduces pain, fever, and inflammation.	(The Boots Company) England
43 YBN [01/15/1957 AD]	5724) Evidence that parity is not conserved in the so-called weak-interaction (atomic "decay") is provided by observing the electron (beta decay) emission angles from oriented Co60.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA and (National Bureau of Standards) Washington, D. C., USA
43 YBN [01/16/1957 AD]	5711) Transfer RNA is identified (T-RNA); small RNA molecules in cells that carry amino acids to ribosomes where the amino acids are linked into proteins.	(Harvard University, Massachusetts General Hospital) Boston, Massachusetts, USA
43 YBN [04/05/1957 AD]	5517) The low temperature Field-Ion Microscope in which the needle is cooled in liquid hydrogen.	(Pennsylvania State University) University park, Pennsylvania, USA
43 YBN [04/24/1957 AD]	5668) An X-ray emission is observed from a solar flare using a rocket.	(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory) Washington, D. C., USA
43 YBN [07/08/1957 AD]	5296) A theory of superconductivity which involves the action of pairs of electrons.	(University of Illinois) Urbana, Illinois, USA
43 YBN [09/19/1957 AD]	5611) The first completely contained underground nuclear explosive test.	(US Department of Energy Nevada Proving Grounds) Nye County, Nevada, USA|Nevada, USA
43 YBN [10/04/1957 AD]	5486) The first human-made satellite, Sputnik 1 {SPUT-niK Russian: SPUT-nYiK}. Sputnik 1, is an 83-kg (184-pound) aluminum sphere that carries four antennas that reaches an Earth orbit with an apogee (farthest point from Earth) of 940 km (584 miles) and a perigee (nearest point) of 230 km (143 miles), circling Earth every 96 minutes.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam, 370 km southwest of the small town of Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union)
43 YBN [10/10/1957 AD]	5689) The enzyme "polymerase", which synthesizes DNA molecules from nucleotides, is isolated and named.	(Washington University) Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
43 YBN [10/11/1957 AD]	5740) The electron "Tunnel" effect is identified; electrons can "tunnel" through barriers of perhaps 100 atoms thick and this is used to make an electronic switch called a tunnel diode which are very fast and small diodes.	(Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, Limited) Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
43 YBN [10/23/1957 AD]	5432) The process in which glycogen is synthesized from glucose is understood.	(INSTITUTIO DE INVESTIGACIONES BIOQUIMICAS) Buenos Aires, Argentina, South America
43 YBN [10/23/1957 AD]	5659) Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP), an intermediate in the formation of ATP is identified and isolated.	(Western Reserve University) Cleveland, Ohio, USA
43 YBN [11/03/1957 AD]	5487) The first animal to orbit Earth; the dog "Laika" in the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik 2.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union)
43 YBN [12/??/1957 AD]	4895) The prediction that blindness and deafness will be cured by technology that transmits images and sounds to the brain, and that as one result vision and hearing can be strengthened to allow humans to see in total darkness.	Chicago, Illinois, USA
43 YBN [1957 AD]	5409) The mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge is shown to be divided by a central rift, which in places is twice as deep and wide as the Grand Canyon.	(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA
43 YBN [1957 AD]	5506) The radioactive tracer carbon-14 in carbon dioxide is used to determine the molecular steps in the cycle of photosynthetic reactions (known as the Calvin cycle), and to show how this cycle is partly related to the known cycle of cell respiration.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
43 YBN [1957 AD]	6502) Direct neuron writing to hearing using an implanted electric device; the first cochlear implants.
42 YBN [01/09/1958 AD]	5772) The "Mössbauer effect": how when atomic nuclei are in a crystalline lattice, the lattice prevents the nuclei from recoiling, and so the nuclei can emit and absorb gamma radiation of the same exact frequency (resonantly). This phenomenon allows highly precise measurements of frequency.	(Institut fur Physik im Max-Planck-Institut fur medizinische Forschung {Institute of Physics at the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research}) Heidelberg, Germany
42 YBN [04/28/1958 AD]	5607) The first high altitude atomic explosive test.	(85 nm NE of) Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean
42 YBN [05/01/1958 AD]	5608) A high intensity of corpuscular radiation temporarily trapped in the Earth's magnetic field is discovered. These layers will come to be called the magnetosphere and the "Van Allen" radiation belts.	(National Academy of Science and American Physical Society joint meeting) Washington, D. C., USA
42 YBN [05/??/1958 AD]	5321) The name "pheromones" is proposed for substances that are secreted by an animal to the outside and cause a specific reaction in a receiving individual of the same species.	(Max Planck Institute) Munich, Germany
42 YBN [06/06/1958 AD]	5559) Element 102 (Nobelium) is created.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
42 YBN [08/01/1958 AD]	5606) The first atomic explosion in empty space and first rocket launched atomic explosion.	(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean
42 YBN [08/03/1958 AD]	5231) The first submarine to cross under the North Pole.	North Pole
42 YBN [10/08/1958 AD]	195) The first fully internal pacemaker.	(Elema-Sch�nander) Sweden
42 YBN [11/14/1958 AD]	5535) Amino acid polymers are created which are called "proteinoids".	(Florida State University) Tallahassee, Florida, USA
42 YBN [1958 AD]	6550) The integrated circuit (or IC); very thin paths of metal allow an entire circuit on a single piece of solid material.	(Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor)
41 YBN [01/03/1959 AD]	5596) The first ship to pass the moon.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
41 YBN [01/27/1959 AD]	5672) From the motion of a 3 pound satellite the Earth is found to be slightly pear shaped, because the southern half of the equatorial bulge is up to fifty feet farther from the center of the Earth than the northern part, and that sea level at the North Pole is one hundred feet farther from the center than sea level at the South Pole is.
41 YBN [02/14/1959 AD]	5595) The existence of a second high intensity radiation belt outside of the first layer is found using coincidence counters in a spacecraft.	(State University of Iowa) Iowa City, Iowa, USA
41 YBN [04/??/1959 AD]	5787) Signals from life of other stars are searched for.	(National Radio Astronomy Observatory) Green Bank, West Virginia, USA
41 YBN [05/01/1959 AD]	5536) Cell-like spheres are created by boiling proteinoids in sea water.	(Florida State University) Tallahassee, Florida, USA
41 YBN [07/17/1959 AD]	5327) Fossils of Paranthropus are found.	Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika Territory, Africa
41 YBN [09/14/1959 AD]	5597) A ship impacts the moon of Earth; the Soviet "Luna 2". The moon is shown to have no significant magnetic field or radiation belts.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
41 YBN [10/18/1959 AD]	5598) The first pictures of the far-side of the moon of Earth.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
41 YBN [11/05/1959 AD]	191) The first remote neuron writing and the first device inside the body that is controlled remotely by an external device. An artificial heart pacemaker is remotely controlled with radio.	(Yale University School of Medicine) New Haven, New Jersey, USA
41 YBN [12/07/1959 AD]	5372) An X-ray telescope.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
40 YBN [01/23/1960 AD]	4992) Humans reach 35,800 feet (6 3/4 miles 10.91km) below sea level.	Marianas Trench of the Pacific Ocean
40 YBN [02/13/1960 AD]	5587) The structure of the haemolglobin molecule is determined by monochromatic x-ray reflection.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
40 YBN [03/09/1960 AD]	5774) Light are proven to have mass. Gravity is shown to change the frequency of light proving that the speed of light is not constant by Cranshaw, Schiffer and Whitehead in England, and independently by Pound and Rebka in the USA. The Mössbauer effect is used (with radioactive Iron-57) to show that the wavelength of a beam of photons with gamma wavelength is increased (or red-shifted) as the beam is sent from the top floor of a tower to the basement because of the stronger gravity field at the basement which is closer to the center of the Earth. This change in wavelength is measured by the decrease in absorption of a crystal of the same kind as the crystal that emits the gamma rays. This proves that the speed of light is not constant as Einstein's theories of relativity require, but that Einstein's prediction that the frequency of light is changed by gravity is true.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
40 YBN [04/19/1960 AD]	5665) An x-ray photograph of the Sun.	(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory) Washington, D. C., USA
40 YBN [04/22/1960 AD]	5768) The laser (which stands for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation") is invented by Theodore Maiman who makes use of the three-level principle and designs a ruby cylinder with its ends carefully polished flat and parallel and covered with silver coatings. Light is fed into the ruby cylinder from a flash lamp and the ruby emits light that is monochromatic (single frequency) and coherent (all the beams in a single direction). These coherent beams of light can travel thousands of miles without spreading very far apart.	(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu, California
40 YBN [04/??/1960 AD]	5073) A logical contradiction in Einstein's theory of relativity and the FitzGerald-Lorentz theory of space and time dilation is identified in that time appears different depending on which of two clocks is viewed as stationary, and the first recognition that spectral line position changes as a result of a change in light source distance.	(University of London) London, England
40 YBN [06/29/1960 AD]	5681) The green plant pigment chlorophyll is synthesized.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
40 YBN [08/12/1960 AD]	5485) The first passive communication satellite, Echo, is launched. Stations on the surface of Earth send and receive data from the satellite, a mylar polyester balloon.	(Launchpad 17) Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA
40 YBN [08/30/1960 AD]	5737) The principle of "Computerized axial tomography" (CAT) is described: a thin line of x-rays is used to determine the density of the inside of objects by measuring the difference in x-ray absorption from many angles around an object.	(University of California Medical Center) Los Angeles, California, USA
40 YBN [09/09/1960 AD]	5747) A theory unifying weak nuclear and electromagnetic interactions (the "electro-weak" theory).	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
40 YBN [09/15/1960 AD]	5798) The theory that the high surface temperature of planet Venus is because visible light collides with the surface, increasing its temperature, but infrared light emitted by the surface is absorbed in the gas of the atmosphere of Venus and so does not easily escape to space.	(Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
40 YBN [09/16/1960 AD]	5652) An atomic hydrogen maser.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
40 YBN [09/??/1960 AD]	5707) A theory of electron-transport phosphorylation (how ADP is converted back to ATP) in which hydrogen ions (H+, protons) and Hydroxy ions (OH-) are exchanged through a mitochondrion membrane.	(University of Edinburgh) Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
40 YBN [10/24/1960 AD]	5415) Parathormone is isolated; the active molecule of the parathyroid gland.	(Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research) New York City, New York, USA
40 YBN [12/28/1960 AD]	5705) Messenger RNA and the system that regulates protein synthesis in the cell (regulatory genes called "operons") are identified by François Jacob (ZoKoB) and Jacques Monod (mOnO). Jacob and Monod propose the existence of "messenger-RNA" that carry the DNA blueprint from the nucleus to ribosomes which are the site of protein assembly in the cytoplasm. In addition Jacob and Monod describe the regulatory mechanism of the lac operon of Escherichia coli, a system that allows the bacterium to repress the production of enzymes involved in lactose metabolism when lactose is not available. Without regulator genes DNA would continuously produce proteins which are not needed.	(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France
40 YBN [12/30/1960 AD]	5769) The first gas laser (using a helium and neon mixture).	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA
40 YBN [12/??/1960 AD]	5412) The "seafloor spreading hypothesis": that continents are carried passively on top of the spreading seafloor. This explains how continents can move without breaking apart, the formation of Guyots, and why ocean floor sediments are no older than the Cretaceous period.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
40 YBN [1960 AD]	5685) The steps involved in the biosynthesis of cholesterol from acetic acid are described.	(National Institute for Medical Research) Mill Hill, London, UK
39 YBN [02/13/1961 AD]	5741) A method of grouping particles into logical families is created ("The Eight-Fold Way").	(Imperial College) London, England and (California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California, USA
39 YBN [04/12/1961 AD]	5601) The first human to orbit the Earth; Yury Gagarin in the Soviet ship Vostok 1.	Saratovskaya oblast, Russia (was U.S.S.R.)
39 YBN [04/13/1961 AD]	5560) Element 103, Lawrencium is created.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
39 YBN [05/19/1961 AD]	5612) The first ship from Earth to pass Venus, the Soviet Venera 1.	Planet Venus
39 YBN [05/20/1961 AD]	5673) The three-dimensional structure of the muscle protein myoglobin is determined.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England (and the Royal Instutition, London)
39 YBN [08/03/1961 AD]	5765) The first nucleic acid nucleotide is connected to a specific amino acid. A synthetic RNA molecule is made of a single repeating nucleotide, uridylic acid, which is found to produce a protein containing only the amino acid phenylalanine, and so the uridylic acid must code for the amino acid phenylalanine.	(National Institutes of Health) Bethesda, Maryland, USA
39 YBN [10/16/1961 AD]	5242) A hologram is produced using laser light.	(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
39 YBN [10/16/1961 AD]	5718) Three kinds of kinds of T-RNA molecules are isolated.	(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York, USA
39 YBN [12/30/1961 AD]	5663) That three DNA nucleotides code for one amino acid in a protein is understood.	(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
39 YBN [1961 AD]	5706) The Bacteria Escherichia Coli is shown to have a single chromosome, which is in the shape of a circle.	(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France
39 YBN [1961 AD]	5788) The "Drake Equation", a simple equation to estimate how many advanced civilizations may exist in a galaxy.	(SETI conference) Green Bank, West Virginia, USA
38 YBN [01/05/1962 AD]	5792) Removing the thymus gland at an early age is shown to cause a young animal to be unable to develop antibody resistance to foreign molecules.	(Chester Beatty Research Institute, Institute of Cancer Research: Royal Cancer Hospital) London, England
38 YBN [05/04/1962 AD]	5796) The first molecule is created that reacts with an inert gas.	(University of British Columbia) Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
38 YBN [06/16/1962 AD]	5662) That RNA has a helical structure is understood by using monochromatic x-ray reflection. RNA is usually single-stranded, but can fold back on itself to form a double helix as is the case for transfer and ribosomal RNA.	(King's College) London, England
38 YBN [06/30/1962 AD]	5682) The antibiotic tetracycline is synthesized.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (and CHAS. PFIZER AND CO., INC, Groton, Connecticut, USA)
38 YBN [09/24/1962 AD]	5656) The semiconductor laser. A forward biased Gallium-Arsenide p-n junction emits a monochromatic microwave light.	(General Electric Research Laboratory) Schenectady, New York, USA
38 YBN [10/12/1962 AD]	5376) X-ray sources from outside the solar system are observed.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
38 YBN [10/26/1962 AD]	6201) Laser writing and reading of data. Data is written and read from plastic film. Reading data with light particles is better than reading data mechanically, like using the arm of a phonograph player, because only light particles touch the recorded surface.	(Winston Research Corporation) Los Angeles, California, USA
38 YBN [1962 AD]	5171) The rubella virus (the cause of German measles) is cultured.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
38 YBN [1962 AD]	5490) An undersea station where humans live for prolonged periods of time.	(off coast of) Marseilles, France
38 YBN [1962 AD]	5794) Electrophoresis is used to separate nucleic acid molecules into distinct fractions.	(Biochemical Research Laboratory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) Sofia, Bulgaria (verify)
38 YBN [1962 AD]	6628) That charged particles are emitted by the Sun in all directions following the lines of force of the Sun's magnetic field is confirmed by the Mariner 2 Venus probe.
37 YBN [03/04/1963 AD]	5750) Quasars (quasi-stellar radio sources) are identified. Quasars are extragalactic objects, starlike in appearance and having spectra with characteristically large redshifts, that are thought to be the most distant and most luminous objects in the universe.	(Wilson and Palomar Observatories, Carnegie institute of Washington and California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California, USA
37 YBN [03/16/1963 AD]	5785) The spectrum of the first known quasar is found to be shifted very far into the red implying that the light source is very far away.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
37 YBN [04/26/1963 AD]	5736) The positron emission topography (or PET) scan is developed, which is like a CAT scan but which uses a positron beam instead of x-rays.	(Tufts University) Medford, Massachusetts, USA
37 YBN [06/16/1963 AD]	5602) The first woman to orbit the Earth.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
37 YBN [07/20/1963 AD]	5730) ATP and ADP are synthesized by ultra-violet irradiation of dilute solutions of purine or pyrimidine bases, pentose sugars, and phosphorus compounds.	(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett Field, California, USA and (Stanford University) Palo Alto, California, USA
37 YBN [08/05/1963 AD]	5609) The nuclear test ban treaty prohibits the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space but allows for underground testing.	Moscow, (Soviet Union) Russia
37 YBN [12/??/1963 AD]	5694) Sheep insulin is synthesized.	(Deutsches Wollforschungsinstitut - German Wool Research Institute) Aachen, Germany and (University of Pittsburgh) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
36 YBN [01/04/1964 AD]	5780) The concept of non-integral values for electromagnetic charge and the theory of "quarks" which are thought to be fundamental particles is created.	(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California
36 YBN [02/26/1964 AD]	5437) The three kinds of cone on the human retina responsible for human color vision are identified; blue-sensitive, green-sensitive, and red-sensitive.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
36 YBN [04/04/1964 AD]	5330) The first fossil bones of a "Homo habilis".	Olduvai Gorge, Africa
36 YBN [06/19/1964 AD]	5749) A new quantum number "charm" is created.	(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark
36 YBN [07/15/1964 AD]	5770) A carbon dioxide laser is invented; the most powerful commercial gas laser.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA
36 YBN [09/24/1964 AD]	5746) The theory of hypothetical "W" and "Z" particles, which are thought to unify a weak nuclear force and electromagnetism.	(Imperial College) London, England
36 YBN [10/08/1964 AD]	5569) Element 104 is identified ("Rutherfordium").	(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions) Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
36 YBN [12/17/1964 AD]	5585) That the polyoma virus inserts its DNA into the DNA of the host cell, which is then transformed into a cancer cell that reproduces the viral DNA along with its own DNA producing more cancer cells is shown.	(The Salk Institute For Biological Studies) San Diego, California, USA
36 YBN [12/??/1964 AD]	5497) The first topographical map of relative electric voltages measured on the surface of the head (using EEG) caused by evoked external stimulus.	(La Salpetriere), Paris, France
36 YBN [1964 AD]	3980) The liquid crystal display (LCD); a DC voltage of several volts is used to change the color of a liquid crystal cell. An LCD uses less electricity, weighs less, and is thinner than a Cathode Ray Tube display.	RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
35 YBN [01/08/1965 AD]	5719) The first sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid are determined; an alanine T-RNA molecule.	(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York, USA
35 YBN [03/29/1965 AD]	5731) The five nucleotides present in RNA and DNA are formed under conditions considered to be abiotic and that could have existed on the primitive Earth.	(NASA Ames Research Center) Moffett Field, California, USA
35 YBN [05/13/1965 AD]	5797) The finding of "background radiation" and the claim that this supports the "Big Bang" expanding universe theory.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.) Crawford Hill, Holmdel, New Jersey, USA
35 YBN [06/05/1965 AD]	5714) Two "termination" codons (UAG and UAA) are identified as signals in messenger RNA for terminating a polypeptide chain.	(Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA and (Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
35 YBN [07/14/1965 AD]	5615) The first ship to reach Mars and to return images of the surface, the US Mariner 4. These represent the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space.	Planet Mars
35 YBN [09/02/1965 AD]	5713) All of the 64 possible ribotrinucleotides are synthesized.	(University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
35 YBN [1965 AD]	6276) A head-mounted computer display (for virtual reality).
34 YBN [01/27/1966 AD]	5648) Fossils of microorganisms that are 3 billion years old are found.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
34 YBN [02/03/1966 AD]	5616) The first ship from Earth to make a soft landing on another world (the Moon), and the first ship to return images from the surface of another world.	Moon of Earth
34 YBN [02/19/1966 AD]	5728) A slow-acting virus is identified; a virus that does not show effects until 18 to 21 months after infection.	(National Institute of Health) Bethesda, Maryland, USA
34 YBN [03/01/1966 AD]	5613) The first ship to impact a different planet, the Soviet "Venera 3" impacts the surface of Venus.	Planet Venus
34 YBN [04/04/1966 AD]	5599) The first ship to orbit a body beyond the Earth, the Soviet Luna 10 orbits the Moon. Luna 10 turns around at a distance of 8000 km (5000 miles) from the Moon and fires its rockets to slow down and enters lunar orbit, transmitting data for 56 days.	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
34 YBN [10/24/1966 AD]	5793) The first known "repressor" is isolated; the "Lac" repressor, which is a protein made by the control gene for the lac operon (the cluster of genes responsible for metabolizing the sugar lactose).	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
33 YBN [02/24/1967 AD]	5715) That the direction of reading of messenger RNA by a ribosome is from the 5' end to the 3' end of the RNA is proven. The numbers 5' and 3' represent the position in the ring of the ribose molecule which is linked to the phosphate part of the nucleic acid backbone.	(University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
33 YBN [04/03/1967 AD]	6202) Laser writing to a disk.	(Gauss Electrophysics, Inc), Santa Monica, California, USA
33 YBN [12/03/1967 AD]	5725) The first successful heart transplant.	(University of Cape Town and Groote Schuur Hospital) Cape Town, South Africa
33 YBN [1967 AD]	3982) Liquid crystal display devices are sold to consumers (the first digital LCD clock).	RCA Labs, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
33 YBN [1967 AD]	4558) Artificial muscles that use compressed air.	unknown
33 YBN [1967 AD]	5341) Tissue compatibility is found to be determined by specific genes.	(Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
33 YBN [1967 AD]	5845) The first handheld calculator.	(Texas Instruments) Dallas, Texas, USA
33 YBN [1967 AD]	6344) The theory that a chip inside the body could enable radio communication of sound to and from thought.
32 YBN [01/25/1968 AD]	5755) A restriction enzyme is shown to break only those DNA molecules that contain a certain sequence of nucleotides characteristic of bacteriophages.	(University of Geneva) Geneva, Switzerland
32 YBN [01/29/1968 AD]	6501) Direct neuron writing to the eye screen using an implanted electronic device.	(Physiological Laboratory, University of Cambridge and the Department of Neurological Surgery and Neurology, United Cambridge Hospitals) Cambridge, England
32 YBN [02/09/1968 AD]	5739) Pulsars, stars that emit regularly timed bursts of radio light with a small interval, are identified by Jocelyn Bell.	(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England
32 YBN [02/27/1968 AD]	5759) A multi-wire solid-state particle detector increases the speed of particle detection.	(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland
32 YBN [03/11/1968 AD]	5754) A DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli is isolated; a protein in the bacterium E. coli that cuts foreign DNA.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
32 YBN [11/16/1968 AD]	5808) The artificial sweetener Asparatame is discovered.	(G. D. Searle and Co.) Skokie, Illinois, USA
32 YBN [12/24/1968 AD]	5604) The first humans to orbit the moon.	Moon of Earth
32 YBN [1968 AD]	6641) The first direct evidence for internal structure within protons and neutrons and for quarks; based on analysis of the scattering patterns observed when high-velocity electrons from the Stanford linear accelerator strike liquid hydrogen.	(Stanford University Linear Accelerator) Stanford, California, USA
31 YBN [03/21/1969 AD]	5776) The first known structure of an antibody is determined: the amino acid sequence in the γG human immunoglobulin protein molecule.	(The Rockefeller University) New York City, New York, USA
31 YBN [04/??/1969 AD]	5576) Changes in electric potential on the surface of the skull evoked from auditory and visual stimulus are recorded.	(Albert Einstein College of Medicine) Bronx, New York, USA
31 YBN [07/21/1969 AD]	655) Humans land and walk on the surface of the moon of Earth; the US "Apollo 11". The Apollo 11 Lunar Module "Eagle" is the first crewed vehicle to land on the Moon. It carries Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin Jr. who spend about 21 hours on the moon and return 8 days after lift off.	Moon of Earth
31 YBN [07/28/1969 AD]	5795) That the sequence from a messenger RNA corresponds to the sequence of amino-acids in the protein that the RNA codes for is proven using gel electrophoresis to determine the nucleotide sequence in RNA.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
31 YBN [09/15/1969 AD]	5753) A DNA molecule is broken with an enzyme by Smith and Welcox; ("restriction enzymes"). Smith and Welcox use a restriction enzyme from the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae to break a DNA molecule.	(Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland, USA
31 YBN [10/10/1969 AD]	5469) The molecular structure of insulin is determined using monochromatic X-ray reflection).	(Oxford University) Oxford, England
31 YBN [10/29/1969 AD]	5733) That the hypothalamus (an area of the brain) controls and regulates the secretion of other glands is proven.	(Baylor University) Houston, Texas, USA
31 YBN [1969 AD]	5840) A walking robot that uses pneumatic (air-filled) rubber artificial muscles.	(Waseda Univerity) Tokyo, Japan
31 YBN [1969 AD]	5841) "Bubble memory" devices store information even when the computer is turned off, unlike conventional electronic memory devices.
31 YBN [1969 AD]	5851) The Internet (people use computers to communicate over the telephone wire network). The ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork) which will grow into the Internet, is started with four sites: two University of California campuses (Santa Barbara and Los Angeles), the Stanford Research Institute, and the University of Utah.	(University of California at Los Angeles) Los Angeles, California, USA and (Stanford Research Institute) Stanford, California, USA and (University of California Santa Barbara) Santa Barbara, California, USA, and (University of Utah) Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
30 YBN [01/29/1970 AD]	5836) The digital electronic camera. The Charged Coupled Device (CCD), an electronic memory that can be charged by light is invented. This will lead to the first digital cameras.	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA
30 YBN [06/02/1970 AD]	5801) Reverse transcriptase is identified, an enzyme in RNA tumor viruses that synthesizes DNA from an RNA template. This shows that the classical process of information transfer from DNA to RNA can be reversed.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA and (University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
30 YBN [06/16/1970 AD]	5716) Two DNA molecules are combined using an enzyme (ligase). The first artificial gene is synthesized by Har Khorana and team who use kinase and ligase to create the gene for a tRNA molecule from DNA segments.	(University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
30 YBN [09/08/1970 AD]	5574) A protein with the same amino acid sequence as the human growth hormone (HGH or somatotropin) is synthesized that displays growth-promoting activity.	(University of California) San Francisco, California, USA
30 YBN [09/24/1970 AD]	5600) A robotic ship from Earth returns samples from another body (the moon of Earth).	(80 km SE of the city of) Dzhezkazgan, Kazakhstan (was U.S.S.R.)
30 YBN [12/15/1970 AD]	5617) The first ship to soft land on another planet (Venus) and the first to transmit data after landing; the Soviet Venera 7.	Planet Venus
30 YBN [1970 AD]	5842) The "floppy disk" is introduced for storing data.
29 YBN [01/01/1971 AD]	5519) A field ion shadow projection microscope is used to view large biomolecules.	(Pennsylvania State University) University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
29 YBN [01/??/1971 AD]	5523) The term "black hole" is created for a mass that collapses to a point (or "singularity"), with a gravity so large that nothing including even light particles can escape it.	(Princeton University) Princeton, New Jersey, USA
29 YBN [04/19/1971 AD]	5667) The first orbiting ("space") station; the Soviet "Salyut 1".	(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) (verify)
29 YBN [05/06/1971 AD]	5735) GHRH (growth hormone-releasing hormone), which causes the pituitary gland to release gonadotropin is isolated and synthesized. This proves that the hypothalamus releases hormones that regulate the pituitary gland.	(V.A. Hospital and Tulane University School of Medicine) New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
29 YBN [07/15/1971 AD]	5421) The first natural compound found to contain boron is identified: boromycin, an antibiotic produced by a species of Streptomyces bacteria.	(Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule) Zurich, Switzerland
29 YBN [11/09/1971 AD]	5838) Light particle communication using liquid filled glass fiber (fiber optic communication).	(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Holmdel, New Jersey, USA
29 YBN [11/14/1971 AD]	5618) The first ship to orbit another planet. The US "Mariner 9" orbits planet Mars. The Mariner 9 mission results in a global mapping of the surface of Mars, including the first detailed views of the martian volcanoes, Mariner Valley, the polar caps, dust storms, and the satellites Phobos and Deimos.	Planet Mars
29 YBN [11/27/1971 AD]	5619) A ship impacts Mars (the Soviet "Mars 2").	Planet Mars
29 YBN [11/??/1971 AD]	5844) The first microprocessor and central processing unit (CPU); an integrated circuit which contains 2,300 transistors with a clock rate of 740 kHz, has 46 instructions, and uses external RAM and ROM.	(Intel Corporation) Santa Clara, California, USA
29 YBN [12/02/1971 AD]	5620) The first ship to soft land on planet Mars and return data: the Soviet "Mars 3".	Planet Mars
29 YBN [1971 AD]	5852) The first e-mail (electronic mail) program.	(Bolt, Beranek, and Newman engineering) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
28 YBN [01/21/1972 AD]	5708) "Immune Reponse" (Ir) genes which control the formation of specific immune responses are identified.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
28 YBN [07/15/1972 AD]	5621) The first ship from Earth to pass the meteor belt between Mars and Jupiter; the U.S. Pioneer 10.	Planet Mars
28 YBN [07/31/1972 AD]	5751) Proteins are synthesized by using a virus to add DNA into bacteria by Paul Berg and team. This is the beginning of genetic engineering. One of the earliest practical results of this "recombinant" technology is the development of a strain of bacteria containing the gene for producing the mammalian hormone insulin.	(Stanford University Medical Center) Stanford, California, USA
28 YBN [1972 AD]	5074) A logical inconsistency is found in the famous "twin-paradox" of Einstein's theory of relativity in which one twin ages faster because they travel faster: the impossibility of two twins traveling at different velocities relative to each other.	(University of London) London, England (presumably)
28 YBN [1972 AD]	5790) The first pair of electron storage rings are constructed in which two streams of high-velocity electrons can collide head on, and an electron-positron collider is constructed and starts operating.	(Stanford University Stanford Linear Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford, California, USA
27 YBN [12/03/1973 AD]	5622) A ship reaches Jupiter and sends the first close-up images of Jupiter; the US "Pioneer 10". Pioneer 10 also charts the giant planet's intense radiation belts, and locates the planet's magnetic field.	Planet Jupiter
27 YBN [1973 AD]	5684) Coenzyme vitamin B-12 (cyanocobalamin) is synthesized.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (and Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, Switzerland)
26 YBN [03/29/1974 AD]	5614) The first ship to reach Mercury, to return close images of planet Mercury, and to use the gravitational pull of one planet (Venus) to reach another planet (Mercury); the U.S. "Mariner 10".	Planet Mercury
26 YBN [06/??/1974 AD]	5561) The element 106, Seaborgium is created and identified, by bombarding lead atoms with chromium ions.	(Joint Institute for Nuclear Research) Dubna, Soviet Union and (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
26 YBN [1974 AD]	5846) The personal computer; the "Altair 8800".	(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA (verify)
26 YBN [1974 AD]	5896) A multi-window computer program with moveable windows; Xerox's SmallTalk.	(Xerox Palo Alto Research Center) Palo Alto, California, USA
25 YBN [03/19/1975 AD]	5717) The first artificial gene capable of functioning in a living cell is synthesized.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, MAssachusetts, USA and (University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
25 YBN [10/20/1975 AD]	5623) The first ship to orbit and land on Venus, and transmit the first image from the surface of another planet (the Soviet "Venera 9"). The lander transmits data from Venus' surface for 53 minutes. Temperature at the surface is found to be 460°C (860°F); atmospheric pressure is 90 times that at the surface of Earth.	Planet Venus
25 YBN [1975 AD]	6371) An external object is moved by thought (electricity in the brain).
24 YBN [03/10/1976 AD]	1122) The lithium ion battery.	(Exxon Research and Engineering Company) Linden, New Jersey, USA
24 YBN [03/??/1976 AD]	5763) Colliding accelerated protons and antiprotons (oppositely charged particles) head-on is proposed.	(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA and (University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA
24 YBN [07/20/1976 AD]	5624) The first images and soil samples from the surface of Mars. The two Viking orbiters transmit images of the surface and complete over 700 orbits of Mars. The two Viking Landers transmit over 1400 images images of the surface, take surface samples and analyze them for composition and signs of life, study atmospheric composition and weather, and deploy seismometers.	Planet Mars
24 YBN [11/30/1976 AD]	5695) The complete DNA sequence of a virus is determined by Frederick Sanger and team. This is the first complete genome to be sequenced. The genome is of a small virus with 5,375 nucleotide pairs which codes the production of nine different proteins.	(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England
24 YBN [1976 AD]	5329) Footprints of a pair of hominids walking upright together that are between 2.6 to 3 million years old are found.	Laetoli, Tanzania, Africa
23 YBN [01/??/1977 AD]	5847) The first successfully mass marketed personal computer, the Commodore PET is sold to the public.	(Commodore International) West Chester, Pennsylvania, USA (verify)
23 YBN [05/19/1977 AD]	5771) The first x-ray laser.	(P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute, USSR Academy of Sciences) Moscow, USSR (now Russia)
23 YBN [1977 AD]	5738) The first comprehensive map of the ocean floor of Earth.
23 YBN [1977 AD]	6277) An electronic glove that monitors bodily movement.	(University of Illinois at Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA
23 YBN [1977 AD]	6312) A self-driving car. A car that can follow roads for up to 50 meters at speeds up to 30 km/h.	(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab) Japan
22 YBN [05/15/1978 AD]	5831) Retinoic acid is found to induce embryonic stem cells to differentiate (change into a different kind of cell).	(The Rockefeller University) New York City, New York, USA
22 YBN [07/25/1978 AD]	5810) The successful birth of a human baby after being transferred from in vitro fertilization.	(General Hostpial) Oldham, UK
21 YBN [01/15/1979 AD]	6203) A practical laser disk.	Eindhoven, Netherlands
21 YBN [03/05/1979 AD]	5630) The first close-up images of the moons of Jupiter; by the U.S. ship Voyager 1.	Planet Jupiter
21 YBN [09/01/1979 AD]	388) A ship reaches Saturn and sends the first close-up images (the U.S. "Pioneer 11"). Pioneer 11 flies to within 13,000 miles (21,000 km) of Saturn, locates two unknown small moons, an additional ring, charts Saturn's magnetosphere (a region in which charged particles are trapped), magnetic field, heat, and determine that Titan is too cold for life.	Planet Saturn
20 YBN [09/12/1980 AD]	6189) The Scanning Tunneling Microscope. Individual atoms and molecules of many kinds can be seen.	(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory) Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland (presumably)
20 YBN [11/12/1980 AD]	5631) The first close-up images of the moons of Saturn; by the U.S. "Voyager 1".	Planet Saturn
19 YBN [04/??/1981 AD]	6649) Beams of protons and antiprotons are collided head on.	CERN (Conseil Europ�enne pour la Recherche Nucl�aire), Geneva, Switzerland
19 YBN [11/12/1981 AD]	5805) The first reuse of a space craft; the U.S. space shuttle "Columbia".	(Launch Pad 39A) Merritt Island, Florida, USA
18 YBN [03/01/1982 AD]	5626) The first Venus soil samples and sound recording of another planet; the Soviet "Venera 13".	Planet Venus
18 YBN [04/09/1982 AD]	5729) Prions, proteins that cause disease are identified.	(University of California) San Francisco, California, USA
18 YBN [10/01/1982 AD]	5806) Compact disk players are sold to the public.	(Sony Corporation) Japan (presumably)
18 YBN [10/08/1982 AD]	5807) Element 109 is created; Meitnerium {mIT-nR-EuM}.	(Institut fur Kernphysik, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt) Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany (now Germany)
18 YBN [1982 AD]	5853) TCP/IP is made the standard protocol of the ARPAnet.
18 YBN [1982 AD]	6629) A safe and effective vaccine for hepatitis B is made available.	USA
17 YBN [06/13/1983 AD]	5627) The first ship from Earth to fly farther than all known planets of this star system; the U.S. "Pioneer 10".	Planet Neptune
17 YBN [10/25/1983 AD]	5811) Humans are shown to be genetically closer to chimpanzees than gorillas, orangutans, or Old World monkeys.	(Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA
17 YBN [1983 AD]	5764) The charged W+ and W- particles and neutral Z particle are identified, which are the predicted carriers of the weak force according to the electroweak theory which unifies the weak force with electric charge.	(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland
16 YBN [01/12/1984 AD]	5809) The homeobox is discovered. The homeobox is a short DNA sequence (180 base pairs, 60 amino acids) that is present in genes that are involved in orchestrating the development of a wide range of organisms.	(University of Basel) Basel, Switzerland and (Indiana University) Bloomington, Indiana, USA
16 YBN [03/10/1984 AD]	5814) A multicellular organism is "cloned" (genetically identical copies are made) by Drs. Willadsen and Godke. An embryo is split into separate cells, each nucleus is then put into ova with nucleus removed from a different animal and reimplanted to produce genetically identical animals (sheep).	(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology) Cambridge, UK
16 YBN [06/25/1984 AD]	5815) Copies are made of DNA sequences from an extinct species; the quagga, an extinct member of the horse family.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
16 YBN [08/31/1984 AD]	6190) A DNA molecule is imaged at the atomic scale using a Scanning Tunneling Microscope.	(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Switzerland, presented in) Prague, Czechoslovakia
16 YBN [10/04/1984 AD]	5812) An image of a planetary disk around a star.	(University of Arizona) Tuscon, Arizona, USA and (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) Pasadena, California, USA
16 YBN [11/16/1984 AD]	5813) The technique of "genetic fingerprinting" is identified, how certain sequences of DNA that are unique to each person can be used to identify individual organisms and also to determine family relationships.	(University of Leicester) Leicester, UK
16 YBN [1984 AD]	5854) The domain name addressing system is introduced on the ARPAnet.
15 YBN [01/28/1985 AD]	5825) RU 486 (the "morning after pill") is tested and found to be useful for fertility control.	(Service d'Endocrinologie et des Maladies de la Reproductio) Bicetre,France and (INSERM U 3 Hôpital de Bicêtre) Bicêtre, France and (CNRS 105), Paris , France
15 YBN [02/18/1985 AD]	5821) The neutron microscope.	(Technische Universitat Munchen) Garching, Germany and (Institut Laue-Langevin) Grenoble, France
15 YBN [09/20/1985 AD]	5804) Polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS} chain reaction (PCR), a simple technique that allows a specific segment of DNA to be copied billions of times in a few hours is invented by Kary Mullis.	(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville, California, USA
15 YBN [12/06/1985 AD]	5816) Lanxides, materials that are crosses between ceramics and metals are created.	(Lanxide Technology Corporation) Newark, Delaware, USA
14 YBN [01/24/1986 AD]	5628) A ship reaches Uranus and sends the first close-up images of the planet, its moons, and its rings; the U.S. "Voyager 2".	Planet Uranus
14 YBN [1986 AD]	5818) An increase in the growth rate is found in goldfish that have genes that code for human growth hormone injected into them.	(Peking University) Perking, China (presumably)
13 YBN [02/06/1987 AD]	5819) A material that is superconducting at 93 K (-180°C) which is warm enough for the use of liquid nitrogen (78 K -195°C) which is much less expensive than liquid helium.	(University of Alabama) Huntsville, Alabama, USA and (University of Houston) Houston, Texas, USA
13 YBN [07/14/1987 AD]	5820) A positron microscope.	(University of Michigan) Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
12 YBN [12/14/1988 AD]	6194) A microscopic electric motor by Fan, Tai and Muller.	(University of California at Berkeley), Berkeley, California, USA
12 YBN [1988 AD]	5856) Real-time text conversation over the telephone wires becomes possible with the development of Internet Relay Chat protocols.
11 YBN [01/18/1989 AD]	6205) An RNA molecule is imaged at the atomic scale with an STM.	(University of Minnesota) Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
11 YBN [08/25/1989 AD]	5629) A ship reaches Neptune and sends the first close-up images of the planet, its moons and rings; the U.S. "Voyager 2".	Planet Neptune
10 YBN [01/17/1990 AD]	6191) Individual atoms are moved by Eigler and Schweizer who use an STM at low temperatures to move individual atoms to form the letters "IBM" in xenon atoms.	(IBM Research Division, Almaden Research Center) San Jose, California, USA
10 YBN [01/29/1990 AD]	6278) A light particle (optical) computer processor.	(AT&T Bell Labs) Holmdel, New Jersey, United States
10 YBN [02/14/1990 AD]	5632) The first ship to capture an image of the entire star system (Sun and all planets) in one picture; the U.S. "Voyager 1".	Outside star system
10 YBN [04/25/1990 AD]	5828) A telescope is placed in Earth orbit.	Earth Orbit (Launched from Launch Pad 39B) Merritt Island, Florida, USA
10 YBN [06/11/1990 AD]	5826) The gene on the Y chromosome that determines gender in mammals is identified.	(Human Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Imperial Cancer Research Fund) London, UK (and two other locations)
10 YBN [1990 AD]	5849) The first digital camera is sold to the public.	(Dycam Inc) Ventura Blvd, Woodland Hillsa, California, USA (verify)
9 YBN [10/29/1991 AD]	5635) A ship reaches and sends the first close-up images of an asteroid. The U.S. ship "Galileo" flies by the asteroid "Gaspra".	Asteroid Gaspra (Ida encounter must occur later)
9 YBN [1991 AD]	5857) The World Wide Web is released to the public by way of FTP.
8 YBN [1992 AD]	5859) The first free videophone program.
7 YBN [08/28/1993 AD]	5636) A ship discovers the first known moon of an asteroid. The U.S. ship Galileo is the first ship to discover a moon of an asteroid (Ida's satellite Dactyl).	Asteroid Ida
7 YBN [1993 AD]	5858) The first Internet browser.
5 YBN [02/24/1995 AD]	5822) The top quark is observed with a mass around 200 Gev/c2.	(Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory) Batavia, Illinois, USA
5 YBN [12/07/1995 AD]	396) The first ship to orbit Jupiter, the U.S. ship "Galileo".	Jupiter
5 YBN [12/07/1995 AD]	5637) A ship enters the atmosphere of planet Jupiter; the U.S. "Galileo" Probe and descends 200km (124 miles) reaching 22 times the atmosphere at the surface of Earth and 150 C (300 F).	Planet Jupiter
4 YBN [05/15/1996 AD]	5827) The drug "Viagra" (Sildenafil) is found to enhance duration and rigidity of an erect penis.	(Pfizer Central Research) Sandwich, Kent, UK (verify earliest date)
4 YBN [11/25/1996 AD]	186) An animal is cloned from an adult somatic cell by Wilmut et al (the sheep "Dolly"). The nucleus of a sheep ovum is replaced with the nucleus of a mammary cell from an adult sheep, stimulated with electric pulses to start dividing, and reimplanted to develop into an identical sheep as the mammary cell donor. This confirms that differentiation of the adult mammary gland cell does not involve an irreversible modification of genetic material in order for the embryo to develop to birth.	(University of Edinburgh, Roslin Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK
1 YBN [09/15/1999 AD]	3887) The first images read directly from neurons.	(University of California, Berkeley) Berkeley, CA, USA
1 YBN [09/20/1999 AD]	5833) Embryonic stem cells transplanted onto spinal cord tissue, are shown to differentiate, integrate with, and promote recovery in the spinal cord of injured rats.	(Washington University School of Medicine) St. Louis, Missouri, USA
0 YAN [01/01/0 AD]	150)
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0 YAN [01/01/0 AD]	6543)
0 YAN [02/14/2000 AD]	5638) A ship orbits an asteroid; the U.S. "NEAR Shoemaker".	Asteroid Eros
0 YAN [12/05/2000 AD]	5823) The human genome is sequenced.	(Celera Genomics) Rockville, Maryland, USA (and 13 other locations)
0 YAN [0 AD]	55)
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0 YAN [0 AD]	689)
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0 YAN [0 AD]	707)
0 YAN [0 AD]	740)
0 YAN [0 AD]	799)
0 YAN [0 AD]	1069)
0 YAN [0 AD]	1260)
0 YAN [0 AD]	1297)
0 YAN [0 AD]	1585)
0 YAN [0 AD]	5473) The number of neutrons in the Earth atmosphere is measured as one thermal neutron for every 16 ionizing cosmic rays.
0 YAN [0 AD]	6311)
1 YAN [02/12/2001 AD]	5639) The first ship to land on an asteroid; the U.S. "NEAR Shoemaker".	Asteroid Eros
1 YAN [06/28/2001 AD]	6192) A microscopic radio chip (or RFID chip) by Hitachi. These chips measure 400x400 µm.	(Hitachi) Japan
1 YAN [07/27/2001 AD]	6200) A millimeter scale rotational wing flying device.	(University of Tokyo) Tokyo, Japan
2 YAN [02/16/2002 AD]	6332) A remote control device emits drugs inside a human body.	(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark
3 YAN [04/04/2003 AD]	6195) A nanometer scale electric motor by Zettl and team.	(University of California at Berkeley), Berkeley, California, USA
4 YAN [01/15/2004 AD]	5640) A vehicle from Earth moves around on the surface of planet Mars; the U.S. "Spirit rover".	Planet Mars
4 YAN [06/17/2004 AD]	6204) A camera that is made of fabric (optoelectronic fibres).	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
4 YAN [07/01/2004 AD]	5641) The first ship to orbit Saturn; the U.S. "Cassini".	Planet Saturn
4 YAN [07/22/2004 AD]	6655) The first image of a planet of a different star; captured in infrared light.	(European Southern Observatory) Santiago, Chili
4 YAN [10/27/2004 AD]	6639) The theory that at some distance, not one light particle from another star can be moving in the direction of Earth is revived and clearly stated.	(University of California) Irvine, California, USA
4 YAN [11/29/2004 AD]	5832) Stem cells are used to repair damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed human to walk. A South Korean woman paralyzed for 20 years walks again after her damaged spine is repaired using stem cells derived from umbilical cord blood.	(Chosun University) Kwangju, South Korea
5 YAN [01/14/2005 AD]	5642) A ship lands on a moon of Saturn (Titan). The European Space Agency (E.S.A.) "Huygens" Titan probe is the first ship to soft-land on a moon of a planet besides Earth	Planet Saturn, moon Titan
6 YAN [08/25/2006 AD]	6645) Differentiated adult cells are reprogrammed into pluripotent stem cells by injecting them with only four proteins. These cells are now called "induced pluripotent stem cells" (or iPSCs).	Japan.
7 YAN [10/31/2007 AD]	6187) A carbon nanotube radio.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
8 YAN [06/10/2008 AD]	6582) That mass and motion cannot be converted into each other is recognized.	(UC Irvine) Irvine, CA, USA
8 YAN [12/10/2008 AD]	3886) Remote neuron reading. An image of what the eyes are seeing is captured remotely by Kamatani and team using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). They also distinguish between different syllables of thought-audio remotely.	(Collaboration between researchers at two Japanese Universities, two research Institutes, and ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto, Japan
9 YAN [10/12/2009 AD]	6207) A laser is microscopic in two dimensions.	(Institute for Quantum Electronics) Zurich, Switzerland
11 YAN [05/02/2011 AD]	6196) A camera is microscopic in two-dimensions.	(Medigus Ltd. and Tower Semiconductor Ltd) Omer, Israel
11 YAN [07/08/2011 AD]	255) A solar cell is made on paper.	(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
11 YAN [09/22/2011 AD]	6211) Movies of remotely read eye images are published.	(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA
12 YAN [01/31/2012 AD]	276) Sound a brain hears is recorded directly from the brain.	(University of California at Berkeley) Berkeley, CA, USA
13 YAN [03/23/2013 AD]	6640) The theory that globular clusters are the inevitable result of highly adapted living objects by Ted Huntington.	(University of California) Irvine, California, USA
13 YAN [05/15/2013 AD]	6647) Stem cells are created by replacing the nucleus of an ovum with the nucleus of a skin cell. This method allows people to be their own stem cell donor.	(Oregon Health & Science University), Oregon, USA
FUTURE
15 YAN [2015 AD]	332) Sound a brain hears is recorded remotely and played out loud.
15 YAN [2015 AD]	6394) A microscopic radio (or particle transmitter and receiver). These devices are smaller than 1 millimeter and can send and receive particle signals.
18 YAN [2018 AD]	6208) A radio device functions inside a cell. The first human-made cell organelle. This is the first public demonstration of a device like a microscopic RFID chip that exists inside an individual cell and can send and receive information with a remote external device.
20 YAN [2020 AD]	4559) Walking robots are produced in mass quantity, and are available for the public to buy. This is the start of the "robot revolution"; how robots replace humans in most manual labor tasks, greatly increasing the quantity of food produced and the population of humans.	unknown
20 YAN [2020 AD]	4573) Humans synthesize artificial milk and cheese.	unknown
20 YAN [2020 AD]	6197) The first remote control microscopic flying device.
20 YAN [2020 AD]	6632) Humans move an asteroid by capturing the asteroid inside a container.	unknown
20 YAN [2020 AD]	6633) Electronic current is visualized.
23 YAN [2023 AD]	6552) The first wireless microscopic microphone. The "micro-mic".
25 YAN [2025 AD]	337) Remote neuron writing using microscopic devices in neurons. Microscopic devices enter the human body by the lung, enter the blood circulation which connects directly to all cells, and position themselves as organelles inside each neuron. External devices communicate with the intracellular devices to read the voltage and to remotely make the neuron cell fire. Sounds, images, smells, touches, emotions, and muscle contractions can now be remotely activated in a brain by sending light particles to intracellular devices.
25 YAN [2025 AD]	6193) A wireless microscopic camera. The "micro-cam".
25 YAN [2025 AD]	6198) A remotely controlled flying microscopic camera.
25 YAN [2025 AD]	6375) The wireless microscopic maser.
25 YAN [2025 AD]	6395) The wireless nanometer scale radio transmitter and receiver (the nano-radio).
30 YAN [2030 AD]	365) The first thought-audio is recorded. Thought-audio is recorded using remote neuron reading and played out loud publicly. The first recorded thought audio may sound like this: "1 2 3". Humans start to communicate by thought-image and thought-sound only.
30 YAN [2030 AD]	366) The first artificial muscle bipedal robots. These robots are lighter and more electrically efficient, than motor robots.	unknown
30 YAN [2030 AD]	680) The first images of thought are seen. Thought-images are recorded remotely using remote neuron reading and shown publicly. The first thought-image may be the image of a triangle.
30 YAN [2030 AD]	791) Bipedal robots start replacing humans in most low-skill jobs (for example as walking security cameras, in fast-food, and fruit picking).
30 YAN [2030 AD]	6391) A nanometer scale wireless camera. The "nano-cam". This camera is under a micrometer in size, is powered by light particles, and also transmits images using light particles.
40 YAN [2040 AD]	4561) Walking robots can wash dishes, clothes, clean and do most other simple household tasks.	unknown
40 YAN [2040 AD]	6206) A microscopic wing-flapping flying device.
40 YAN [2040 AD]	6553) The first use of remote writing to motor neurons to stop an act of violence.
45 YAN [2045 AD]	6630) Obesity is cured with microscopic devices.
50 YAN [2050 AD]	790) Humans walk around with robot servants. These robots perform tasks like carrying objects and protection.
50 YAN [2050 AD]	4564) An artificial muscle robot can fly by flapping wings.	unknown
50 YAN [2050 AD]	4566) The first air highway, for autopiloted flying cars, is established. Flying cars are mass produced. Most use a propeller design like a helicopter. The flying cars are extremely safe with emergency parachutes, airbags, emergency landing thrusters, and have complete auto-navigation.	unknown
50 YAN [2050 AD]	6298) An artificial muscle wing flapping plane.
50 YAN [2050 AD]	6300) Bacteria are identified and destroyed by microscopic devices inside an animal body.	unknown
51 YAN [2051 AD]	6520) There are 10 billion humans on Earth.
55 YAN [2055 AD]	6302) Cancer cell growth is stopped by microscopic devices.	unknown
58 YAN [2058 AD]	6303) That microscopic particle devices inside an animal body can purposely create cancer is proven.	unknown
60 YAN [2060 AD]	6301) A virus is identified and destroyed by microscopic devices inside an animal body.	unknown
75 YAN [2075 AD]	6445) Humans stop unwanted weather (for example tornadoes and hurricanes), by changing air temperature using millions of distributed remote control nanometer sized devices.
80 YAN [2080 AD]	6392) Accelerated nanocamera ships reach another planet and return closeup images.
100 YAN [2100 AD]	367) Most humans communicate only by images and sounds of thought.
100 YAN [2100 AD]	793) Helicopter-cars form a second line of traffic above the streets. Flying cars travel over the already exiting roads because of the sound level. Flying cars are a popular alternative to ground cars because of improvements to safety, street-level roads are overcrowded, and the cost is only a little more than a regular car.
100 YAN [2100 AD]	794) 100 ships with humans orbit Earth. Eventually, Earth orbit will be filled with single family house ships, grocery, fuel, and garbage ships. Many stores on Earth will also have stores in orbit.
100 YAN [2100 AD]	4569) Most vehicles are machine controlled. Humans only determine the destination.	unknown
100 YAN [2100 AD]	4575) Robots walk on the moon of Earth and build buildings.	unknown
100 YAN [2100 AD]	4613) Humans conquer all bacteria and viruses. Nanoscale devices can identify and destroy all known bacteria and viruses anywhere inside or outside of the body.	unknown
120 YAN [2120 AD]	4583) Robots land and walk on an asteroid.	unknown
120 YAN [2120 AD]	4584) Robots walk and build buildings on Mars.	unknown
140 YAN [2140 AD]	687) Large scale transmutation: Humans can convert most common atoms (like Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium) into much more useful atoms (like Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen). This allows many humans to live independently of Earth, in ships, and on planets and moons without air or water, because they can produce all the air, fuel, water and food they need from the common atoms of planets and moons. Because of large scale transmutation large self-sufficient cities of humans can be created on waterless planets and moons.
140 YAN [2140 AD]	6377) Robots build buildings on an asteroid.
150 YAN [2150 AD]	659) The first major nation to be fully and constantly democratic, where the people vote directly on the laws. From this will grow a planetary and ultimately an interstellar electronic voting system where votes are placed by thought or by muscle movement.
150 YAN [2150 AD]	4592) The first humans land on Mars.	unknown
150 YAN [2150 AD]	6223) The first "Moon colony". Humans permanently live on the Moon of Earth.
150 YAN [2150 AD]	6304) Nucleic Acids are changed by remote control nanoscale devices. This will lead to making physical changes to the shape of a body that originate at the cellular level.	unknown
160 YAN [2160 AD]	4590) Robots land and walk on planet Mercury.	unknown
160 YAN [2160 AD]	4591) Robots land and walk on a moon of Jupiter.	unknown
160 YAN [2160 AD]	6642) Humans orbit Venus.	Venus
180 YAN [2180 AD]	4593) Robots land and walk on the surface Saturn and its moons.	Titan of Saturn
180 YAN [2180 AD]	4594) Humans live permanently on Mars. The first Mars colony. The first city of another planet.	unknown
190 YAN [2190 AD]	4578) The first multistory building is built on the moon of Earth.	unknown
190 YAN [2190 AD]	4606) Humans land on Mercury.	unknown
200 YAN [2200 AD]	792) Robots and other machines have replaced humans in most manual labor tasks (driving, cleaning, and food planting, harvesting, preparing and serving). Robots also do the most dangerous parts of military, police, and fire fighting.
200 YAN [2200 AD]	795) 1000 human-filled ships orbit Earth.
200 YAN [2200 AD]	4562) Hugging, kissing, sleeping together, and other non-sexual forms of pleasure for money are decriminalized for adults in most developed nations.	unknown
200 YAN [2200 AD]	4607) The first Mercury colony: humans live permanently under and on the surface of Mercury.	unknown
200 YAN [2200 AD]	6305) Microscopic devices repair, regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
210 YAN [2210 AD]	4585) Humans land and walk on an asteroid.
220 YAN [2220 AD]	4596) Robots land and walk on Uranus and its moons.	unknown
250 YAN [2250 AD]	4567) The end of all arrests for information-sharing results in total freedom of all information in most developed nations on Earth, although many secrets still remain.	unknown
250 YAN [2250 AD]	4586) Humans live permanently on an asteroid.	unknown
250 YAN [2250 AD]	4589) The end of arrests for recreational drug possession in most major nations.	unknown
250 YAN [2250 AD]	4611) Humans reach Jupiter and land on a moon.	Europa, Jupiter
260 YAN [2260 AD]	4601) Robots land and walk on a moon of Neptune.	Triton, Neptune
275 YAN [2275 AD]	661) Most humans are not religious.
280 YAN [2280 AD]	4595) All money is electronic.	unknown
280 YAN [2280 AD]	4598) Humans live permanently in a ship that orbits the Sun.	unknown
280 YAN [2280 AD]	4620) Humans land on Saturn and its moons.	unknown
283 YAN [2283 AD]	6521) There are 100 billion humans.
290 YAN [2290 AD]	4599) The first ships that regularly transport humans from Earth to the moon of Earth.	unknown
300 YAN [2300 AD]	4581) The end of arrests for nudity in public.	unknown
350 YAN [2350 AD]	4609) Humans switch to a single time system for all places in the universe. This time may be set relative to a fixed time of the past. So no matter what part of a planet or moon a person is on, they will all use the same single time.	unknown
350 YAN [2350 AD]	6393) The first microscopic ships to reach another star (Alpha Centauri) and return the first closeup images of the planets around another star. These nanocamera ships are very small, 100 nm thick containing only a billion atoms, and are accelerated to very high speeds, perhaps even half the speed of light. They can reach another star in less than 100 years. There need to be many ships in order that a relay of radio frequency particle signals can be sent over long distances. Possibly similar small nanocamera ships may work together to assemble larger structures and machines from the atoms around other stars.
370 YAN [2370 AD]	6209) Living objects on planets of a different star are identified (bacteria made of DNA on planets around Centauri).	Alpha Centauri
400 YAN [2400 AD]	4587) The end of arrests for consensual adult fondling and masturbation for money in most major nations.	unknown
400 YAN [2400 AD]	4612) Humans send ships with robots to the stars of Alpha Centauri. The first large-size interstellar ships will probably use light particle propulsion from splitting apart atoms, in addition to gravitational acceleration from the Sun and/or Jupiter. If this ship can reach a velocity of 1% the speed of light (3,000 km/s) the ship would take around 400 years to go the 4 light years to Alpha Centauri.	unknown
400 YAN [2400 AD]	6656) The first ships that regularly transport humans from Earth to Mars.	unknown
420 YAN [2420 AD]	779) Most humans in developed nations reject the theory of gods.
500 YAN [2500 AD]	683) The removal and conversion of the Venus atmosphere is started. This is the first major "conversion of gas atmosphere" engineering work of humans. After most of the gas is removed, and the surface of the planet cools down, Oxygen and nitrogen gas will be released to create a new atmosphere. Atoms in the atmosphere are removed and converted into hydrogen and oxygen which are used for fuel, air, and water. This process may be done by thousands of surface (and/or low orbit) machines working in parallel. There is so much gas on Venus, that this may take 1000 years or more.
500 YAN [2500 AD]	686) The end of death by aging. Using genetic editing, humans grow and develop to age 20, and then hold that body shape indefinitely, dying only from physical destruction. Humans now live for thousands of years. This causes the human population to grow at an extremely fast rate. This end of the physical effects of aging, may create a new existence of finite resources and careful monitoring of human reproduction, in particular if humans fail to quickly collect other stars. This also includes the ability to reverse the developmental direction of aging, so that a body can be made to take the shape coded for an earlier stage in the growth cycle.
500 YAN [2500 AD]	4588) The end of arrests for prostitution in most major nations. This includes all forms of trading money for physical pleasure.	unknown
500 YAN [2500 AD]	6546) Microscopic ships reach Barnard's star, the second closest star, 6 light years away, and send back the first images of the planets there.
500 YAN [2500 AD]	6554) The end of homicide, by remote neuron writing.
600 YAN [2600 AD]	4603) The end of arrests for sex in public.	unknown
600 YAN [2600 AD]	4617) An asteroid is moved by propulsion, either by cables or by embedded engines.	unknown
600 YAN [2600 AD]	6547) Microscopic ships reach Sirius, 8 light years away, and send back the first images of the planets there.
650 YAN [2650 AD]	4619) Humans create atoms from light particles. Photon fusion: the reverse of separating atoms into light particles. This process may involve focusing light particles to form larger particles, like electrons, mesons, and protons, that are then collided together to form larger atoms.	unknown
650 YAN [2650 AD]	6555) The first images of large living objects on a planet of another star are seen. Large organisms may be recognized living in water first, or perhaps large land species will be seen first.	Alpha Centauri
700 YAN [2700 AD]	4605) Robots land and walk on Venus.	unknown
750 YAN [2750 AD]	4622) The first large ship to reach a different star (Alpha Centauri). Smaller robot ships land on all the planets and moons of Centauri. Robots start mining and building to prepare for the many millions of humans that will eventually arrive. Some ships will return matter from Centauri back to Earth.	unknown
800 YAN [2800 AD]	24) Humans consume an asteroid.
800 YAN [2800 AD]	4615) Humans live on Venus. The first Venus colony. Humans live on and under the surface of Venus in cooled buildings.	unknown
800 YAN [2800 AD]	4624) Ships containing humans leave for the stars of Alpha Centauri and will arrive successfully perhaps 400 years later. This begins the colonization of other stars. Like many early human settlers, humans may leave for more space and freedom. The initial living conditions around the other stars will not be as developed as those of the home they are leaving.	unknown
800 YAN [2800 AD]	4625) Ships containing robots leave for Barnard's star, 6 light years away, and will arrive successfully, perhaps 350 years later.	unknown
800 YAN [2800 AD]	4627) Humans land on Uranus and its moons.	unknown
800 YAN [2800 AD]	4628) Humans change the motion of a moon; perhaps a moon of Jupiter or Mars.	unknown
840 YAN [2840 AD]	6556) Humans change the motion of the moon of Earth.	unknown
850 YAN [2850 AD]	4580) Humans change the motion of a planet (planet Earth). The large quantity of ships in orbit causes the motion of Earth to be carefully monitored and periodically changed using organized ship movements. By this time the Earth and Moon are visibly surrounded by millions of orbiting ships.	unknown
900 YAN [2900 AD]	29) A ship impacts the surface of Jupiter. The first image of the surface of Jupiter is captured. The solid and liquid body of Jupiter is confirmed to be 6 times the diameter of Earth. The surface of Jupiter may appear to be molten liquid like the surface of the Sun and the interior of the other planets.	unknown
900 YAN [2900 AD]	775) A ship from Centauri leaves for Earth carrying matter from Centauri. This is part of a long term project of bringing back matter from around Centauri to be used around the star Earth orbits where consumable atoms are in great demand.	unknown
900 YAN [2900 AD]	4629) Human anatomical changes start to become apparent as a result of living many generations in low gravity. Humans may start to look like ocean organisms which do not walk but instead move by pushing the surrounding medium using their appendages. Humans may develop both gender, more, and larger sex-related organs.	unknown
900 YAN [2900 AD]	4630) Humans land on Neptune and its moons.	unknown
900 YAN [2900 AD]	4632) Ships containing walking robots leave for the stars of Sirius, 8 light years away and will arrive successfully, perhaps 450 years later.	unknown
1,000 YAN [3000 AD]	4631) The start of the removal of the Jupiter atmosphere. Many humans may fear bad consequences of changing the mass of the planets by removing their gas atmospheres and cooling their surfaces. The removal of the atmosphere is a natural result of ships "feeding" on the matter of Jupiter; the lost mass is replaced by added ships and people.	unknown
1,150 YAN [3150 AD]	4638) Ships with robots reach the second closest star, Barnard's star. The ships containing walking robots arrive at Barnard's star, 6 light years away. Ships land on all the planets, and build buildings. Humans now have large ships orbiting 2 different star systems.	unknown
1,200 YAN [3200 AD]	4614) A ship from Centauri reaches Earth and returns the first objects from a different star. Robots around Centauri build ships to go to other stars and pull them closer.	Neptune
1,200 YAN [3200 AD]	4637) Humans reach a different star (Alpha Centauri). Humans now live around two star systems and so the chance of extinction is greatly decreased. Humans will start to reproduce at an exponential rate around the three stars of Centauri.	unknown
1,200 YAN [3200 AD]	4639) Humans completely control the motion of planet Mercury.	unknown
1,300 YAN [3300 AD]	777) The end of major religions (Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism). Most humans belong to no major religion.
1,350 YAN [3350 AD]	4640) Ships with robots reach Sirius. Humans now have large ships at 3 external star systems.	unknown
1,400 YAN [3400 AD]	4643) Humans control the motion of Mars.	unknown
1,400 YAN [3400 AD]	6568) Humans reach Barnard's star.	unknown
1,500 YAN [3500 AD]	684) Much of the Atmosphere of Venus is removed and the surface has cooled down. Nitrogen and oxygen gases are now released into the atmosphere.
1,500 YAN [3500 AD]	4642) Humans evolve a brain with more and smaller neurons. For many centuries there will be at least two clear lines of human evolution, those that live with large gravity on planets and moons, and those that live in low gravity in ships.	unknown
1,600 YAN [3600 AD]	4623) Humans have total control over the molecular content of the air on Earth using air purifiers. The quantity of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. is under complete control by humans.	unknown
1,600 YAN [3600 AD]	4641) The motion of Venus is controlled by orbiting ships.	unknown
1,600 YAN [3600 AD]	6569) Humans reach Sirius.	unknown
1,800 YAN [3800 AD]	4645) The motion of Jupiter is controlled by orbiting ships.	unknown
2,000 YAN [4000 AD]	4644) The atmosphere of Jupiter is completely removed. This greatly reduces the surface temperature, which may solidify and be more easily mined. Humans may release oxygen and nitrogen at the surface to create an open-air breathing environment for those living on the surface of Jupiter, or Jupiter may just be mined for matter, most of which is exported to humans living in stellar and Jupiter orbit.	Jupiter
2,000 YAN [4000 AD]	4646) Humans have robot ships at 10 different stars.	unknown
2,100 YAN [4100 AD]	4650) The start of the removal of the atmosphere of Saturn.	unknown
2,200 YAN [4200 AD]	4651) The rings of Saturn are consumed by humans living there.	unknown
2,200 YAN [4200 AD]	4653) Humans start to consume the atmosphere of Uranus.	unknown
2,300 YAN [4300 AD]	4657) Humans start to consume the atmosphere of Neptune.	unknown
2,300 YAN [4300 AD]	6379) Humans land on the surface of Jupiter.	unknown
2,500 YAN [4500 AD]	4579) The Venus atmosphere is like the atmosphere of Earth. The Conversion of the Venus atmosphere project is completed. Venus becomes a second Earth (although without oceans and much more efficiently organized).
2,500 YAN [4500 AD]	4652) The first ships to hold an orbit above or below the planetary plane. Ships can get closer to the Sun by occupying an orbit above or below the planetary plane. These ships may hold a horizontal orbit by thrusting against the y component of the Sun's gravity. Alternatively they may maintain a thrustless orbit that crosses the planetary plane.	unknown
2,500 YAN [4500 AD]	4654) Humans have robot ships at 20 different stars.	unknown
2,500 YAN [4500 AD]	4655) Humans live on the surface of Jupiter.	Jupiter
2,500 YAN [4500 AD]	4662) The motions of all the planets are under human control.	unknown
2,800 YAN [4800 AD]	4669) Jupiter is the most populated planet, overtaking the Earth in number of humans living in, on, and in orbit of it.	unknown
3,000 YAN [5000 AD]	4656) The atmosphere of Jupiter is now Nitrogen and Oxygen, and heated to stay gaseous.	Jupiter
3,000 YAN [5000 AD]	4666) More humans live in ships than live in and on the surface of all the planets, moons and asteroids.	unknown
3,000 YAN [5000 AD]	4668) Humans have robot ships at 50 different stars.	unknown
3,100 YAN [5100 AD]	4671) The first image of advanced living objects that evolved around a different star. Their scientific technologies, constructions, and highly adapted anatomies are of great interest. Obtaining this image is part of a process that all advanced life must participate in; sending probe ships to other stars and capturing images of any life that has evolved there.	unknown
3,100 YAN [5100 AD]	6643) The air of Saturn is completely converted into nitrogen and oxygen heated to stay gaseous.
3,200 YAN [5200 AD]	4664) The air of Uranus is completely converted into nitrogen and oxygen heated to stay gaseous.	Uranus
3,200 YAN [5200 AD]	4673) Humans inhabit 10 stars and have robot ships around 100 stars.	unknown
3,300 YAN [5300 AD]	6173) The air of Neptune is completely converted into nitrogen and oxygen heated to stay gaseous.	Neptune
3,500 YAN [5500 AD]	6176) The position of the Sun is under human control and is moved in the direction of Centauri. Although humans completely control the position of the Sun, the Sun still rotates.	Mars
4,000 YAN [6000 AD]	4674) The stars of Centauri are moved towards the Sun. This will make travel, communication, and trading of matter between the two stars faster.	Centauri
4,000 YAN [6000 AD]	4675) Humans touch advanced living objects that evolved around a different star. This will cause a large amount of excitement for the many billions of organisms of both star systems.	unknown
4,500 YAN [6500 AD]	4676) Humans form a cluster of 4 stars (the Sun and the three stars of Centauri) and start to look like an "open cluster". Each star is within 1 light year from each other.	unknown
5,000 YAN [7000 AD]	678) One trillion humans.
9,000 YAN [11000 AD]	4680) Genetic engineering may produce humans that use photosynthesis, only needing water, oxygen, and light.	unknown
10,000 YAN [12000 AD]	4681) Humans may genetically remove the requirement to urinate, defecate, sleep, and reproduce sexually.	unknown
11,000 YAN [13000 AD]	4682) Humans may genetically remove the need for a constant supply of oxygen or water.	unknown
12,000 YAN [14000 AD]	679) One quadrillion humans (1015).
12,000 YAN [14000 AD]	4683) Our descendents probably will look very different from humans now, adapted for efficiency and to low gravity space.	unknown
15,000 YAN [17000 AD]	6570) More humans live around other stars than live around the Sun.
19,000 YAN [21000 AD]	6548) One quintillion humans (1018).
25,000 YAN [27000 AD]	4677) Humans have robot ships around 1000 stars, inhabit 100 stars, and form an open cluster of 10 stars.	unknown
45,000 YAN [47000 AD]	4679) Humans have robot ships around 10,000 stars, inhabit 1000 stars and form a cluster of 100 stars.	unknown
50,000 YAN [52000 AD]	4658) All asteroids are consumed.
63,000 YAN [65000 AD]	6171) Humans reach the center of the Earth.
65,000 YAN [67000 AD]	6174) Earth is completely filled with living objects, and has a population of 10 quintillion {KWiNTiLYeN} (1019) humans. The Earth is the first major body of the Star System to become completely populated. There is no more molten material inside the Earth. All the molten compressed matter was extracted, cooled and consumed, mostly as building materials, fuel, and food. Earth is completely filled with tunnels, rooms, and living objects. Alternatively, life may exist mostly in ships, with the planets devoid of life and mostly mined for matter.	Earth
70,000 YAN [72000 AD]	4684) Humans have robot ships at 100,000 stars, inhabit 10,000 stars, and form a cluster of 1,000 stars. Alternatively, the cluster of stars our descendents make may be consumed by or integrated with one or more other larger star clusters, for example the Hyades or M13.	unknown
90,000 YAN [92000 AD]	6210) Humans make a globular cluster of 10,000 stars. This cluster starts to leave the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy. The human population is now around 50 sextillion (50 x 1021).	unknown
100,000 YAN	6558) An object made by humans touches the surface of the Sun. By this time the surface of the Sun is much colder and less bright. Matter of the Sun continues to be extracted for food, fuel and building materials.
121,000 YAN	681) The Moon of Earth population reaches the maximum possible (200 quadrillion, 200 x 1015 ).
125,500 YAN	4672) Planet Mercury is completely filled with living objects and has a population of 600 quadrillion (600 x 1015). Mercury now functions as a massive ship. Mercury may even eventually divide into many smaller ships.	unknown
127,000 YAN	682) The population of humans on planet Mars reaches a physical maximum of 1 quintillion (1 x 1018) humans.
135,000 YAN	685) The population of Venus reaches the physical maximum of 9 quintillion humans (9 x 1018).
138,000 YAN	4678) All the planets of the Sun are consumed. All that remains are ships that orbit the Sun; most matter must now be taken from the Sun and other stars.	unknown
148,000 YAN	100) The Sun is consumed. That the planets and Sun will probably be consumed is evidence that a globular cluster is made by an advanced organism that goes out and brings back other stars to consume, the matter being converted into more of their species, ships, food, and fuel.
185,000 YAN	6178) All the planets of Sirius are consumed.	Sirius
205,000 YAN	6317) Sirius is consumed.	Sirius
630,000 YAN	106) Ten to the power 100 humans.
1,000,000,000 YAN	4685) All the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy belong to a globular cluster. The Milky Way is now an elliptical galaxy.	unknown
25,000,000,000 YAN	4686) The star clusters in the outer areas are pulled closer to the center making the galaxy more spherical, and the galaxy develops a massive propulsion system in order to go get more matter to consume. The Milky Way is now a spherical globular galaxy. The matter thrown away as fuel probably is less popular and less important matter; although all matter is probably important to a globular cluster. The galaxy may try to position itself behind another galaxy to consume its emitted exhaust.	unknown
30,000,000,000 YAN	4687) The Milky Way Globular Galaxy integrates the matter of the two Magellanic Cloud galaxies.	unknown
40,000,000,000 YAN	4688) The Andromeda and Milky Way globular galaxies may merge into a single larger galaxy, which then resumes the search for a smaller galaxy to consume. Natural selection must also create a large scale "eat or be eaten", "predator-prey" existence for galaxies similar to that on Earth. The Milky Way may seek to consume galaxies that are smaller, while trying to move away from galaxies that are larger.	unknown

"Universe, Life, Science, Future" is published under the GNU license, except where otherwise indicated or determined to be fair use, copyrighted, public domain, CC, GDFL or other license.
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