TIME	EVENT DESCRIPTION	LOCATION
UNIVERSE
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930,000,000,000 YBN	8) EXPERIMENT: does sound frequency actually get lower over large distances?
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4,600,000,000 YBN	30) The Moon orbiting 5 degrees from the axis of the Earth's orbit implies that the Moon was captured, although 5% is not a particularly large difference from the plane of the Earth's rotation. That the Moon orbits in the same direction as the Earth is evidence in favor of the Moon forming around the Earth.
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LIFE
4,500,000,000 YBN	50) Start of Precambrian Supereon, Hadean Eon.
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4,390,000,000 YBN	25) These early RNA molecules may have been protected by liposomes (spheres of lipids). This process of RNA (and then later DNA) duplication is the most basic aspect of life on earth, and for all the diversity, the one common element of all life is this constant process of DNA duplication, which will later evolve to include cell division. This starts the unbroken thread of copying and division that connects the earliest ancestor, some RNA molecule, to all life on earth that has ever lived. With the only limit being the rate of amino acid production, this may be the start of a large constant conversion of smaller molecules into nucleic acids. This constant copying will ultimately result in billions of living objects on earth.
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4,380,000,000 YBN	168) Ribosomal RNA moves down mRNA molecules functioning as a platform for bringing the mRNA and tRNA molecules together to assemble polypeptides (proteins). This rRNA serves as an early ribosome; objects that serve as sites for building polypeptides and are found in every cell. As time continues the ribosome will grow to include two more RNA molecules, some protein molecules, and a second half that will make polypeptide construction more efficient. The rRNA serves the purpose of bringing amino acids close enough to bond with each other to form polypeptides. As an rRNA moves down an mRNA, tRNA molecules bond with the mRNA and on the opposite side of the tRNA, a matching amino acid (separates? from the tRNA and) attaches to a growing polypeptide chain. Presumably the copier molecule makes copies of the protocell by running down an mRNA molecule, making more copies of itself, tRNA, rRNA and the unbroken mRNA itself. (One way of testing this is by experimentally showing that a ribosome can make copies of itself.)
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4,365,000,000 YBN	166) A ribonucleotide reductase protein is built by the early ribosome protein making protocell. This protein changes ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides. This allows the first DNA molecule on earth to be assembled. Ribonucleotide reductase may be the molecule that allows DNA to be the template for the line of cells that survives to now. If RNA and DNA evolved at the same or different times is not clear yet. Possibly RNA and DNA were created by the same process.
4,360,000,000 YBN	212) A DNA polymerase protein evolves to copy DNA by assembling DNA nucleotides from other DNA molecules. (Is is possible that such a protein could have arrived with a bacteria from a different star system?)
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4,330,000,000 YBN	44) Fermentation evolves. Cells can make lactic acid. Fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can now make more ATP and convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) to lactate (an ionized form of lactic acid).
4,325,000,000 YBN	213) A second kind of fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) to ethanol.
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4,305,000,000 YBN	64) Operons evolve which allow for turning off the assembly of any protein. Operons, sequences of DNA that allow certain proteins coded by DNA to not be built, evolve. Proteins bind with these DNA sequences to stop RNA polymerase from building mRNA molecules which would be translated into proteins. Operons allow a bacterium to produce certain proteins only when necessary. Bacteria before now can only build a constant stream of all proteins encoded in their DNA. (Get more accurate time- based on oldest eubacteria with operon - should be oldest eubacteria since presumably all cells have operons.)
4,304,500,000 YBN	322) Nitrogen fixation. Cells can make nitrogen compounds like ammonia from Nitrogen gas. Without bacteria that convert N2 into nitrogen compounds, the supply of nitrogen necessary for much of life would be seriously limited and would drastically slow evolution on earth. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen is taken from its relatively inert molecular form (N2) in the atmosphere and converted into nitrogen compounds useful for other chemical processes (such as, notably, ammonia, nitrate and nitrogen dioxide). Nitrogen fixation is performed naturally by a number of different prokaryotes, including bacteria, and actinobacteria certain types of anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants, and some animals (termites), have formed associations with these microorganisms. The best-known are legumes (such as clover, beans, alfalfa and peanuts,) which contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the nitrogen helps to fertilize the soil. The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera (e.g., Styphnolobium) do not.
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4,302,000,000 YBN	316) Cell differentiation evolves in filamentous prokaryotes, creating organisms with different kinds of cells. In addition to regular cells, "Heterocysts", nitrogen-fixing cells, evolve in cyanobacteria. Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some filamentous cyanobacteria during nitrogen starvation. (Determine if this is just an example of a cell forming a spore. Clearly forming a spore can be viewed as cell differentiation. But clearly, a cell changes form in small ways all the time.) Which cell differentiation is first is unknown, between cells that form spores, or cysts, and the cell differentiation that is observed in cyanobacterial filamentous cells. Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some filamentous cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc punctiforme and Anabaena sperica, during nitrogen starvation. They fix nitrogen from dinitrogen (N2) in the air using the enzyme nitrogenase, in order to provide the cells in the filament with nitrogen for biosynthesis. Nitrogenase is inactivated by oxygen, so the heterocyst must create a microanaerobic environment. The heterocysts' unique structure and physiology requires a global change in gene expression. For example, heterocysts: * produce three additional cell walls, including one of glycolipid that forms a hydrophobic barrier to oxygen * produce nitrogenase and other proteins involved in nitrogen fixation * degrade photosystem II, which produces oxygen * up regulate glycolytic enzymes, which use up oxygen and provide energy for nitrogenase * produce proteins that scavenge any remaining oxygen Cyanobacteria usually obtain a fixed carbon (carbohydrate) by photosynthesis. The lack of photosystem II prevents heterocysts from photosynthesising, so the vegetative cells provide them with carbohydrates, which is thought to be sucrose. The fixed carbon and nitrogen sources are exchanged though channels between the cells in the filament. Heterocysts maintain photosystem I, allowing them to generate ATP by cyclic photophosphorylation. Single heterocysts develop about every 9-15 cells, producing a one-dimensional pattern along the filament. The interval between heterocysts remains approximately constant even though the cells in the filament are dividing. The bacterial filament can be seen as a multicellular organism with two distinct yet interdependent cell types. Such behaviour is highly unusual in prokaryotes and may have been the first example of multicellular patterning in evolution. Once a heterocyst has formed, it cannot revert to a vegetative cell, so this differentiation can be seen as a form of apoptosis. Certain heterocyst-forming bacteria can differentiate into spore-like cells called akinetes or motile cells called hormogonia, making them the most phenotyptically versatile of all prokaryotes. The mechanism of controlling heterocysts is thought to involve the diffusion of an inhibitor of differentiation called PatS. Heterocyst formation is inhibited in the presence of a fixed nitrogen source, such as ammonium or nitrate. The bacteria may also enter a symbiotic relationship with certain plants. In such a relationship, the bacteria do not respond to the availability of nitrogen, but to signals produced by the plant. Up to 60% of the cells can become heterocysts, providing fixed nitrogen to the plant in return for fixed carbon. The cyanobacteria that form heterocysts are divided into the orders Nostocales and Stigonematales, which form simple and branching filaments respectively. Together they form a monophyletic group, with very low genetic variability.
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4,193,000,000 YBN	77) Archaea (also called archaebacteria) evolve. Last common ancestor of Eubacteria and Archaea. Eubacteria and Archaea (also called Archaebacteria) are the two major lines of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are the most primitive living objects ever found. Prokaryotes differ from the later evolved eukaryotes in have a circle of DNA located in their cytoplasm (not chromosomes) and have no nucleus. There are many widely varying estimates of when the last common ancestor between Eubacteria and Archaea evolved. At least one genetic comparison shows the common ancestor of Eubacteria and Archaea evolving now. These early Archaea and Eubacteria are "thermophile" bacteria, bacteria that are found and grow best in hot water (80+ degrees Celsius). That genetic evidence puts these prokaryotes as the oldest living prokaryotes is evidence that the first prokaryotes on earth may have lived in hot water, perhaps near thermal springs or near ocean floor volcanos. Perhaps the water on the early earth was hot when these first prokaryotes evolved. Archaea are similar to other prokaryotes in most aspects of cell structure and metabolism. However, their genetic transcription and translation are very similar to those of eukaryotes. (Only when the full genomes of all living species are known, and understood will we have strong certainty about the history of evolution. Many genetic trees are based on DNA genes (sequences of DNA that define nucleic acids or proteins), in particular ribosomal RNA which is thought to be highly conserved over time. Ribosomal RNA may be the best record of evolutionary history, but perhaps other genes, for example, those involved with reproduction, or cytoplasm will prove to be more conserved or better estimates of evolutionary history. For example, I think the method of reproduction would be the most conserved, since that process is the most necessary for survival, changes to those genes may stop continued existence, where changes to rrna may not be as serious. In addition, the vast diversity and change in reproductive method over time, should tell us that similar large scale changes could have happened for rrna, cytoplasm, and indeed any part of a cell.) (Determine who has published opposition to the changing of Archeabacteria to Archaea. Cavalier-Smith is one (interesting that the term "negi-bacteria" has apparently not taken hold just as "negatron" did not take hold, probably because similar to the name "Uranus", because the prefix "nega" is close to a racial slur). The term "archaebacteria" is still being published in recent years (2009,2010).)
4,189,000,000 YBN	193) This group of Eubacteria includes the Phyla "Aquificae", "Thermodesulfobacteria", and "Thermotogae". The Aquificae phylum is a diverse collection of bacteria that live in harsh environmental settings. They have been found in hot springs, sulfur pools, and thermal ocean vents. Members of the genus Aquifex, for example, are productive in water between 85 to 95 °C. They are the dominant members of most terrestrial neutral to alkaline hot springs above 60 degrees celsius. They are autotrophs, and are the primary carbon fixers in these environments. They are true bacteria (domain eubacteria) as opposed to the other inhabitants of extreme environments, the Archaea. Thermotoga are thermophile or hyperthermophile bacteria whose cell is wrapped in an outer "toga" membrane. They metabolize carbohydrates. Species have varying amounts of salt and oxygen tolerance. Thermotoga subterranea strain SL1 was found in a 70°C deep continental oil reservoir in the East Paris Basin, France. It is anaerobic and reduces cystine and thiosulfate to hydrogen sulfide. The Hyperthermophiles may be the living object with the most primitive DNA still found on earth (depending on the accurate determination of the origin of Eubacteria and Archaea).
4,189,000,000 YBN	292) Proteins in Archaebacteria flagella are related to pili in bacteria. (Are these the first mobile bacteria?) (It seems logical that the prokaryote flagellum would evolve in proteobacteria because most prokaryotes with a flagellum are in the Proteobacteria domain. There is a unity between pili, flagellum, and exchange of DNA (sex), in particular, in the proteobacterium E. Coli.)
4,187,000,000 YBN	180)
4,187,000,000 YBN	181) Genetic comparison shows the Archaea Phylum, Crenarchaeotes evolving now. The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly referred to as the crenarchaea, in the domain Archaea, contains many extremely thermophilic and psychrophilic organisms. They were originally separated from the other archaeons based on rRNA sequences, since then physiological features, such as lack of histones have supported this division. Until recently all cultured crenarchaea have been thermophilic or hyperthermophilic organisms, some of which have the ability to grow up to 113 degrees C. These organisms stain gram negative and are morphologically diverse having rod, cocci, filamentous and unusually shaped cells. The PHYLUM Crenarchaeotes has the orders: ORDER Caldisphaerales ORDER Cenarchaeales ORDER Desulfurococcales ORDER Sulfolobales ORDER Thermoproteales
4,112,000,000 YBN	58) (Determine if the cells use the products {water and/or methane}. Determine if there are cells that can produce amino acids, nucleotides, sugars, etc. from more simple molecules.) (Note that autotophs also, like many heterotrophs require the absorption of light particles. It may be that orgnisms that can live only off of light particles and perhaps water, oxygen or some other simple atoms may be the most naturally selected or optimized fit as evolution continues and a spiral galaxy turns into a globular galaxy. Perhaps some kind of walking and quickly moving photosynthetic organism will mix the best of plants and animals, and result in a species with a better selective advantage.)
4,100,000,000 YBN	49) First photosynthetic cells. These cells only have Photosystem I. Photosynthesis Photosystem I evolves in early anaerobic prokaryote cells. One of two photosythesis systems, photosystem I uses a pigment chlorophyll A, absorbs photons in 700 nm wave lengths best, breaking the bond betwenn H2 and S. They are anaerobic and perform the reaction: H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide) + CO2 + light -> CH2O (Formaldehyde) + 2S. Only 5 phyla of eubacteria can photosynthesize.
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3,850,000,000 YBN	36)	Akilia Island, Western Greenland
3,850,000,000 YBN	45)	Akilia Island, Western Greenland
3,850,000,000 YBN	51) End of Hadean start of Archean Eon.
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3,500,000,000 YBN	37)	Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig Tree Group, South Africa
3,500,000,000 YBN	39)	Warrawoona, northwestern Western Australia
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3,470,000,000 YBN	182) A sulphate molecular marker is evidence of moderate thermophile sulphur reducing prokaryotes from North Pole, Australia. (Give the sulphur reducing equation.)	North Pole, Australia
3,430,000,000 YBN	833) Strelley Pool Chert
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3,260,000,000 YBN	71) Budding evolves in prokayotes. Different from binary division, where a cell is split in half, in budding, a new complete cell is made in the original cell, and the new cell bursts through the cell wall, the original cell wall must then be repaired. Budding is the only other method of reproduction known in prokaryotes besides binary fission. The only major difference between prokaryote budding and binary division are that one or more new cells are completely formed inside the original cell, where in binary division part of the original cell wall is used to make the new cell. In budding, a complete new cell is synthesized from a DNA template, where in binary division only the DNA is duplicated and more cytoplasm and cell wall is synthesized. So, budding preserves organelles made by the main DNA template that cannot duplicate themselves and would not get duplicated or synthesized in binary division, for example, flagella. Although it is very unlikely, the possibility does exist that prokaryote budding evolved from a eukaryote that lost it's nucleus.
3,250,000,000 YBN	191)	Swartkoppie, South Africa
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3,200,000,000 YBN	66) Chitinozoa are large (50-2000 microns) flask-shaped palynomorphs which appear dark, almost opaque when viewed using a light microscope. They are important Palaeozoic microfossils as stratigraphic markers. The oldest known Acritarchs are recorded from shales of Palaeoproterozoic (1900-1600 Ma) age in the former Soviet Union. They are stratigraphically useful in the Upper Proterozoic through to the Permian. From Devonian times onwards the abundance of acritarchs appears to have declined, whether this is a reflection of their true abundance or the volume of scientific research is difficult to tell.	(Moodies Group) South Africa
2,923,000,000 YBN	178) The Firmicutes are a division of bacteria, most of which have Gram-positive stains. A few, the Mollicutes or mycoplasmas, lack cell walls altogether and so do not respond to Gram staining, but still lack the second membrane found in other Gram-negative forms. Originally the Firmicutes were taken to include all Gram-positive bacteria, but more recently they tend to be restricted to a core group of related forms, called the low G+C group in contrast to the Actinobacteria. They have round cells, called cocci (singular coccus), or rod-shaped forms. Many Firmicutes produce endospores, which are resistant to desiccation and can survive extreme conditions. They are found in various environments, and some notable pathogens. Those in one family, the heliobacteria, produce energy through photosynthesis. Firmicutes include: CLASS Bacilli (rod shaped) ORDER Bacillales (anthrax) ORDER Lactobacillales CLASS Clostridia (C. botulism, C. tetani) ORDER Clostridiales ORDER Halanaerobiales ORDER Thermoanaerobacteriales CLASS Mollicutes ORDER Mycoplasmatales ORDER Entomoplasmatales ORDER Anaeroplasmatales ORDER Acholeplasmatales
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2,800,000,000 YBN	76) The Proteobacteria are a major group of bacteria. They include a wide variety of pathogens, such as Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio, Helicobacter, and many other notable genera. Others are free-living, and include many of the bacteria responsible for nitrogen fixation. The group is defined primarily in terms of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences, and is named for the Greek god Proteus, who could change his shape, because of the great diversity of forms found in it. All Proteobacteria are Gram-negative, with an outer membrane mainly composed of lipopolysaccharides. Many move about using flagella, but some are non-motile or rely on bacterial gliding. This non-motile group includes the myxobacteria, a unique group of bacteria that can aggregate to form multicellular fruiting bodies. There is also a wide variety in the types of metabolism. Most members are facultatively or obligately anaerobic and heterotrophic, but there are numerous exceptions. A variety of genera, which are not closely related, can photosynthesize. These are called purple bacteria, referring to their mostly reddish pigmentation. The delta-proteobacteria Myxobacteria is capable of colonial multicellularity and some view as possibly being the bacteria that formed the cytoplasm in eukaryotes. In the Domain "Bacteria", and Phylum "Proteobacteria" there are 5 Classes: CLASS Alpha Proteobacteria (Rickettsia Prowazekii {mitochondria/typhus}) CLASS Beta Proteobacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae {gonorrhoea}) CLASS Gamma Proteobacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia coli., fireblight {Erwinia amylovora}, one form of dysentery {Shigella dysenteriae}, Legionaires' disease {Legionella pneumophilia}, Haemophilus influenzae {first free living organism to have entire genome sequenced}, Pseudomonas, the largest known bacteria {Thiomargarita namibiensis}, Cholera {Vibrio cholerae}) The number of individual E. coli bacteria in the feces that one human passes in one day averages between 100 billion and 10 trillion. CLASS Delta Proteobacteria (Bdellovibrio {parasite on other bacteria}, Geobacter {can oxydize uranium, may be used as battery that runs on waste}, myxobacteria {form multicellular bodies that make spores, have large genome} CLASS Epsilon Proteobacteria (Helicobacter {spiral bacteria})
2,800,000,000 YBN	177)
2,784,000,000 YBN	176) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes {PlaK-TO-mI-SETS} (Planctobacteria) evolving now. Planctomycetes are a possible ancestor of all eukaryotes because the circle of DNA can sometimes be enclosed in a double membrane. Planctomycetes is a small phylum with only 4 Genera, which requires oxygen for growth (obligately aerobic), and are found in fresh and salt water. Planctomycetes reproduce by budding. They have holdfast (stalk) at the nonreproductive end that helps them to attach to each other during budding. The life cycle involves alternation between sessile cells and flagellated swarmer cells. The sessile cells bud to form the flagellated swarmer cells which swim for a while before settling down to attach and begin reproduction. The organisms belonging to this group lack murein in their cell wall Murein is an important heteropolymer present in most bacterial cell walls that serves as a protective component in the cell wall skeleton. Instead their walls are made up of glycoprotein rich in glutamate. Planctomycetes have internal structures that are more complex than would be typically expected in prokaryotes. While they don't have a nucleus in the eukaryotic sense, the nuclear material can sometimes be enclosed in a double membrane. In addition to this nucleoid, there are two other membrane-separated compartments; the pirrellulosome or riboplasm, which contains the ribosome and related proteins, and the ribosome-free paryphoplasm. (It is also possible, although unlikely, that planctomycetes are descended from a very early eukaryote that lost the nucleus but retained the cytoplasmic DNA, since budding may have evolved as a method to duplicate a eukaryote cell from the nucleus.)
2,784,000,000 YBN	179) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu} (high G+C {Guanine and Cytosine count}, Gram positive, source of streptomycin) evolving now. The Actinobacteria {aK-TinO-BaK-TER-Eu} or Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria. Most are found in the soil, and they include some of the most common soil life, playing an important role in decomposition of organic materials, such as cellulose and chitin. This replenishes the supply of nutrients in the soil and is an important part of humus formation. Other Actinobacteria inhabit plants and animals, including a few pathogens, such as Mycobacterium. Actinobacteria include the causes of tuberculosis (Mycobacteria tuberculosis) and leprosy (Mycobacteria leprae). Some Actinobacteria form braching filaments, which somewhat resemble the mycelia of the unrelated fungi, among which they were originally classified under the older name Actinomycetes. Most members are aerobic, but a few, such as Actinomyces israelii, can grow under anaerobic conditions. Unlike the Firmicutes, the other main group of Gram-positive bacteria, they have DNA with a high GC-content {guanine-cytosine content} and some Actinomycetes species produce external spores. Mycobacterium bovis (the bacterium responsible for bovine TB) in particular has been estimated to be responsible, for the period of the first half of the 20th century, for more losses among farm animals than all other infectious diseases combined. Infection occurs if the bacterium is ingested. Actinobacteria are unsurpassed in their ability to produce many compounds that have pharmaceutically useful properties. In 1940 Selman Waksman discovered that the soil bacteria he was studying made actinomycin, a discovery which granted him a Nobel Prize. Since then hundreds of naturally occurring antibiotics have been discovered in these terrestrial microorganisms, especially from the genus Streptomyces. When M.leprae was discovered by G.A. Hansen in 1873, it was the first bacterium to be identified as causing disease in man. Although Leprosy is contagious, it is not widespread because 95% of the population have immune systems able to cope with the bacteria. The Phylum Actinobacteria have 5 Orders: ORDER Acidimicrobiales ORDER Actinobacteriales ORDER Coriobacteriales ORDER Rubrobacteriales ORDER Sphaerobacteriales
2,775,000,000 YBN	174) Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes (Syphilis, Lyme disease) evolving now. This is when the first spiral shaped bacteria evolve. The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a phylum of distinctive bacteria, which have long, helically coiled cells. They are distinguished by the presence of flagella running lengthwise between the cell membrane and cell wall, called axial filaments. These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move around. Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes (Syphilis, Lyme disease) evolving now. This is when the first spiral shaped bacteria evolve. The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a phylum of distinctive bacteria, which have long, helically coiled cells. They are distinguished by the presence of flagella running lengthwise between the cell membrane and cell wall, called axial filaments. These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move around. Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are numerous exceptions. Spirochaetes only have one order: ORDER Spirochaetales and 3 families.
2,775,000,000 YBN	175) The phylum Bacteroidetes is composed of three large groups of bacteria. By far, more is written about and known about the Bacteroides class, than the other two, the Flavobacteria and the Sphingobacteria classes. They are related by the similarity in the composition of the small 16S subunit of their ribosomes. Members of the bacteroides class are human commensals (they benefit but humans receive no effect) and sometimes pathogens. Members of the other two classes are rarely pathogenic to humans. PHYLUM Bacteroidetes CLASS Bacteroides ORDER Bacteroidales CLASS Flavobacteria ORDER Flavobacteriales CLASS Sphingobacteria ORDER Sphingobacteriales
2,775,000,000 YBN	217) Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Phyla Chlamydiae evolving now. Chlamydiae includes (clamydia, trachoma {Chlamydia trachomatis}, a form of pneumonia {Chlamydophila pneumoniae}, psittacosis {Chlamydophila psittaci}. The Chlamydiae are a group of bacteria, all of which are intracellular parasites of eukaryotic cells. Most described species infect mammals and birds, but some have been found in other hosts, such as amoebae. Chlamydiae have a life-cycle involving two distinct forms. Infection takes place by means of elementary bodies (EB), which are metabolically inactive. These are taken up within a cellular vacuole, where they grow into larger reticulate bodies (RB), which reproduce. Ultimately new elementary bodies are produced and expelled from the cell. Verrucomicrobia is a recently described phylum of bacteria. This phylum contains only a few described species (Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is an example, the phylum is named after this). The species identified have been isolated from fresh water and soil environments and human feces. A number of as-yet uncultivated species have been identified in association with eukaryotic hosts including extrusive explosive ectosymbionts of protists and endosymbionts of nematodes residing in their gametes. Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia are abundant within the environment, and important (especially to soil cultures). This phylum is considered to have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and Lentisphaera. There are three main species of chlamydiae that infect humans: * Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes the eye-disease trachoma and the sexually transmitted infection chlamydia; * Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which causes a form of pneumonia; * Chlamydophila psittaci, which causes psittacosis. CLASS Chlamydiae ORDER Chlamydiales PHYLA Verrucomicrobia ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
2,775,000,000 YBN	6309) Chlorobi are the "green sulphur bacteria", are a family of phototrophic (photosynthesizing) bacteria. Green sulfur bacteria are generally nonmotile (one species has a flagellum), and come in spheres, rods, and spirals. Their environment must be oxygen-free, and they need light to grow. They engage in photosynthesis, using bacteriochlorophylls c, d, and e in vesicles called chlorosomes attached to the membrane. They use sulfide ions as electron donor, and in the process the sulfide gets oxidized, producing globules of elemental sulfur outside the cell, which may then be further oxidized. (By contrast, the photosynthesis in plants uses water as electron donor and produces oxygen.) A species of green sulfur bacteria has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of Mexico at a depth of 2,500 meters beneath the surface of the Pacific Ocean. At this depth, the bacteria, designated GSB1, lives off the dim glow of the thermal vent since no sunlight can penetrate to that depth. PHLYUM Chlorobi (Green sulphur) CLASS Chlorobia ORDER Chlorobiales
2,775,000,000 YBN	6310) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylaum Verrucomicrobia evolving now. Verr ucomicrobia is a recently described phylum of bacteria. This phylum contains only a few described species (Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is an example, the phylum is named after this). The species identified have been isolated from fresh water and soil environments and human feces. A number of as-yet uncultivated species have been identified in association with eukaryotic hosts including extrusive explosive ectosymbionts of protists and endosymbionts of nematodes residing in their gametes. Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia are abundant within the environment, and important (especially to soil cultures). This phylum is considered to have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and Lentisphaera. There are three main species of chlamydiae that infect humans: * Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes the eye-disease trachoma and the sexually transmitted infection chlamydia; * Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which causes a form of pneumonia; * Chlamydophila psittaci, which causes psittacosis. CLASS Chlamydiae ORDER Chlamydiales PHYLA Verrucomicrobia ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
2,740,000,000 YBN	216) (Find any published estimates of how old histones are.)
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2,720,000,000 YBN	65) Perhaps a DNA strand entered a cell by conjugation, the circle of DNA was cut to insert the new DNA (plasmid), but the new DNA strand was not sewn back into the original strand of DNA creating two strands of DNA which eventually evolved into the first 2 chromosomes. Presumably DNA duplication (sythesis) of chromosomes (in the nucleus) is initially identical to DNA duplication of DNA strands or circular DNA. Some prokaryotes without a single circular chromosome are: Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Proteobacteria), Borrellia burgdorferi (Spirochaete), Streptomyces griseus (Actinobacteria). Some prokaryotes do not have just one circle of DNA. Brucella melitensis has 2 circular chromosomes. Agrobacterium tumefaciens has a circular and a linear chromosome. Streptomyces griseus can have one linear chromosome. Borrelia burgdorferi contains a linear chromosome and a number of variable circular and linear plasmids. Chromosomes are linear in eukaryotic nuclei, but circular in eukaryote organelles except for the mitochondria of most cnidarians and some other forms. (There is an interesting analogy of a magnetic tape, or film, with a DNA or RNA molecule. The same is true for a computer program and a DNA molecule, being a sequential list of information.) (Is the chromatid a single DNA molecule that does not fold over itself- that is the chromatid we can see in eletronic microscope images of chromosomes is basically the diameter of a single DNA molecule?) (Perhaps the first eukaryote descended from one of those prokaryotes with linear DNA.)
2,706,000,000 YBN	299) This is required for diploid mitosis. Duplication of diploid DNA may be very similar to duplication of haploid DNA. Initially perhaps the diploid DNA duplicated, but still divided in one-division meiosis. (Instead of a diploid cell dividing back into two haploid cells without their diploid DNA copying after fusion, here the DNA copies and then the division results in two diploid cells.) (something signals the DNA to copy before the division that is not present in a diploid cell that divides into two haploid cells.) (Does diploidy have anything to do with bilateral symmetry? How is symmetry defined in DNA? There must be two mirror copies of many large DNA genes that define the various body parts.)
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2,700,000,000 YBN	62) Earliest molecular fossil evidence of eukaryotes (sterane molecules). These are the oldest known steranes (which are formed from sterols, molecules made by mitochondria in eukaryotes) and are evidence for the existence of eukaryotes.	Northwestern Australia
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2,690,000,000 YBN	207) Cytoskeleton evolves in eukaryote cytoplasm. One theory is that the cytoskeleton formed from the eukaryote flagella (cilia, undulipodia) tubules. Cytoskeleton is a single body with the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membrane? In recent years it has been shown that bacteria contain a number of cytoskeletal structures. The bacterial cytoplasmic elements include homologs of the three major types of eukaryotic cytoskeletal proteins (actin, tubulin, and intermediate filament proteins) and a fourth group, the MinD-ParA group, that appears to be unique to bacteria. The cytoskeletal structures play important roles in cell division, cell polarity, cell shape regulation, plasmid partition, and other functions. The proteins self-assemble into filamentous structures in vitro and form intracellular ordered structures in vivo. In addition, there are a number of filamentous bacterial elements that may turn out to be cytoskeletal in nature.
2,690,000,000 YBN	208) A eukaryote flagellum evolves (also called "cilium" or "undulipodium"). The eukaryote cilia (flagella, undulipodia) may evolve from a prokaryote flagella connected to the nucleus, from the cytoskeleten, or a symbiotic prokaryote. Cilia and eukaryote flagella are structurally the same, but have minor functional differences. Cilia are a special class of eukaryote flagella. The eukarote flagellum is different from prokayote flagellum. The prokaryote flagallum is a solid structures, made of the protein flagellin, which protrudes through the plasma membrane. The eukaryote flagellum (and cilium) contains a "9 plus 2 array", 9 microtubules in a circle with 2 microtubules in the center. In some species the spindles used in mitosis connect to the bases of the eukaryote cilia (undulipodia), which leads some people to think that the spindles of mitosis may have evolved from the eukaryote cilia. Some people think that the eukaryote cilium (flagellum, undulipodia) was a spirochete (prokaryote) that formed a symbiotic relationship with a eukaryote host, whose DNA was transfered to the host nucleus. Other possibilities are that the eukaryote flagellum evolved from prokaryote flagellum, or simply evolved over time through natural selection. The eukaryote flagellum protein "tubulin" is thought to be related to a bacterial replication/cytoskeletal protein "FtsZ" found in some archaebacteria (archaea). What method of reproduction this first nucleated cell used is a great mystery. Among the choices are binary division, budding, or mitosis. My own feeling is that budding or dual binary division (both nucleus and cytoplasm) was how this cell initially copied. The eukaryote flagellum (cilium, undulipodium) is the same inherited and found on sperm cells. Lynn Margulis thinks that the Eukaryote flagellum should be called the undulipodium to distinguish it from a prokaryote flagellum. In some species the spindles used in mitosis connect to the bases of the eukaryote cilia (undulipodia), which leads some people to think that the spindles of mitosis may have evolved from the eukaryote cilia. Some people think that the eukaryote cilium (flagellum, undulipodia) was a spirochete (prokaryote) that formed a symbiotic relationship with a eukaryote host, whose DNA was transfered to the host nucleus. Other possibilities are that the eukaryote flagellum evolved from prokaryote flagellum, or simply evolved over time through natural selection. The eukaryote flagellum protein "tubulin" is thought to be related to a bacterial replication/cytoskeletal protein "FtsZ" found in some archaebacteria (archaea).
2,680,000,000 YBN	291) Eukaryote cell evolves an intermediate stage between DNA synthesis and cell division. For the first time, a cell is not constantly synthesizing DNA (S) and then having a division period (D) (as is the case for all known prokaryotes), but this cell has a period in between cell division and DNA synthesis where DNA synthesis is not performed (G1) . Later some cells develop a stage after synthesis and before cell division (G2).
2,670,000,000 YBN	302) If the cell nucleus is a capture procaryote, synchronized division of Eukaryote nucleus and cytoplasm must evolve. Perhaps the organelle-nuclei attach to the outer cell membrane in the same way the cytoplasmic DNA do, which allows new cytoplasm growth to separate the two organelle-nucleus in addition to the cytoplasmic DNA. Or perhaps the first system of organized nuclei separation originated with the organelle-nucleus flagella microtubules growing into the cytoskeleton as spindles evolving into mitosis.
2,660,000,000 YBN	72) Mitosis, the asexual copying of a haploid (single set of chomosomes) eukaryote nucleus, evolves in eukaryotes. Before mitosis, there is a synthesis stage where chromosomes are duplicated in the nucleus before the nucleus and cell divide. Only eukaryotes reproduce asexually using mitosis. The major differences between this new method of copying, mitosis and the older method, binary fission (add budding?) are: 1) In mitosis, microtubule spindles attach to the kinetochore (the protein structure in eukaryotes which assembles on the centromere and links the chromosome to microtubule polymers from the mitotic spindle during mitosis) and pull apart the two DNA copies, where in binary fission the DNA (single chromosome) attaches to a part of the cytoplasm which pulls apart the two cells. 2) Chromosomes (linear pieces of DNA), not a circle of DNA is being copied. People speculate that early mitosis had spindles outside the nucleus, with chromosomes fastened to the nuclear membrane, as can still be seen in parabasalia and dinoflagellates, which appear to have primitive nuclei. In more ancient species the nuclear membrane persists through mitosis (closed mitosis), but in more recent species, like metazoa, land plants, and many kinds of protists, the nuclear membrane disintegrates before mitosis and is rebuilt after (open mitosis). Most people think that extranuclear spindles (spindles that originate outside of the nucleus) and closed mitosis evolved first. Only later did pleuromitosis (spindles rotate 90 degrees, nucleus can be semi-open, or closed) and then orthomitosis (spindles are on both sides of nucleus and separate chromosomes in a straight line, nucleus can be open, semi-open or closed) evolve in later eukaryotes. Because mitosis is complex and similar in detail in all species that do mitosis, people think that mitosis only evolved once, and was inherited by all species that do mitosis. It is interesting to think about how how binary fission (or potentially budding) of prokaryote cells with no nucleus evolved into mitosis and the use of spindles. Mitosis, budding, and binary fission are the only asexual methods of reproduction known. Perhaps mitosis evolved first only copying the nucleus then later evolved to make not only a new nucleus but also a new cell around that nucleus. explain basic process of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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2,630,000,000 YBN	206) Meiosis evovles (one-step meiosis: 2 haploid cells or two pronuclei fuse into a diploid cell and a divide into 2 haploid cells). Meiosis is the process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in reproductive cells from diploid to haploid, leading to the production of gametes in animals and spores in plants. Mitosis and one-step meiosis are the same with the only exception that: in meiosis two haploid cells join (or 2 pronuclei fuse) before cell division, but in mitosis the DNA is duplicated internally in the nucleus before cell division. Meiosis can be one step (one fusion and then one cell division) or two step (fusion, DNA duplication and then two divisions). Probably one step meiosis evolved first and two step meiosis later. The Protists Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha have up to a four step meiosis. Because meiosis is similar and complex in detail in all species that do meiosis, people think that meiosis only evolved once, and was inherited by all species that do meiosis. (This is perhaps the same cell division process inherited from binary fission. Determine differences.)
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2,600,000,000 YBN	297) Sex between two different sized cells (heterogamy or anisogamy) evolves in protists. Some species are heterogamous but two of the same sized (gender) gametes can fuse to form a zygote.
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2,570,000,000 YBN	295) Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA copies and then the cell divides twice into four haploid cells). Meiosis and mitosis are similar in being nucleus and cell division, but are different. Differences between meiosis and mitosis: 1) At least one crossover per homologous pair happens in 2 step meiosis but crossover usually does not happen in mitosis. (explain crossover) 2) Two step meiosis involves cell divisions that happen one after the other, where the cell division of mitosis only happens after one DNA duplication (there are never 2 mitosis divisions together without a DNA duplication between them to my knowledge). The cell division in two step meiosis that involves a separation of sister chromatids (not homologous chromosome pairs) is basically identical to mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is the second nucleus and cell division. Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA copies and then the cell divides twice into four haploid cells). Meiosis and mitosis are similar in being nucleus and cell division, but are different. Differences between meiosis and mitosis: 1) At least one crossover per homologous pair happens in 2 step meiosis but crossover usually does not happen in mitosis. (explain crossover) 2) Two step meiosis involves cell divisions that happen one after the other, where the cell division of mitosis only happens after one DNA duplication (there are never 2 mitosis divisions together without a DNA duplication between them to my knowledge). The cell division in two step meiosis that involves a separation of sister chromatids (not homologous chromosome pairs) is basically identical to mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is the second nucleus and cell division. Later multistep meiosis evolves, where there may be as many as 4 divisions (for example in the protists Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha). (Determine if it can be said that meiosis is simply a division after the fusion of two nuclei while mitosis is a division after an internucleus DNA copy. Clearly the duplication of two complete nuclei within a single Eukaryote cell must include the inte r-nucleus copying of DNA - and is probably similar to a typical prokaryote cell division. This process just goes further in duplicating the nuclear membrane too. Then the division after the fusion of two nuclei must be basically the same as a mitosis division. So really, in this view, the unique processes are: DNA, nucleus, and/or cell copy, nucleus and/or cell fusion, nucleus and/or cell division.)
2,558,000,000 YBN	171) The Eubacteria phylum "Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves now (includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can survive long exposure to radiation}). The Eubacteria phylum "Deinococcus-Thermus" evoles now (includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can survive long exposure to radiation}). The Deinococcus-Thermus are a small group of bacteria comprised of cocci highly resistant to environmental hazards. There are two main groups. The Deinococcales include a single genus, Deinococcus, with several species that are resistant to radiation; they have become famous for their ability to eat nuclear waste and other toxic materials, survive in the vacuum of space and survive extremes of heat and cold. The Thermales include several genera resistant to heat. Thermus aquaticus was important in the development of the polymerase chain reaction where repeated cycles of heating DNA to near boiling make it advantageous to use a thermo-stable DNA polymerase enzyme. These bacteria have thick cell walls that give them gram-positive stains, but they include a second membrane and so are closer in structure to those of gram-negative bacteria. PHYLUM Deinococcus-Thermus CLASS Deinococci ORDER Deinococcales ORDER Thermales
2,558,000,000 YBN	172) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria {SIeNOBaKTEREu} (ancestor of all eukaryote chloroplasts {plastids}) evolving now. There is a conflict between the interpretation of the geological and the genetic evidence as to if oxygen photosynthesis and cyanobacteria evolved earlier around 3800mybn or here at 2500mybn. Hedges et al find: "Our time estimate for the origin of cyanobacteria (2.6 Ga) is more recent than expected and suggests that earlier fossils claimed to be of cyanobacteria are of other organisms (or artifacts). Moreover, the appearance of cyanobacteria immediately prior to the earliest undisputed evidence for the presence of oxygen (2.4–2.2 Ga) suggests that the innovation of oxygenic photosynthesis had a relatively rapid impact on the environment as it set the stage for further evolution of the eukaryotic cell. ". Some cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena, Synechocystis) can slowly orient themselves along a light vector. Cyanobacteria get their energy from photosythesis. Cyanobacteria include unicellular, colonial, and filamentous forms. Some filamentous cyanophytes form differentiated cells, called heterocysts, that are specialized for nitrogen fixation, and resting or spore cells called akinetes. Each individual cell typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall, which stains gram-negative. The cyanophytes lack flagella, but may move about by gliding along surfaces. Most are found in fresh water, while others are marine, occur in damp soil, or even temporarily moistened rocks in deserts. A few are endosymbionts in lichens, plants, various protists, or sponges and provide energy for the host. Chloroplasts found in eukaryotes (algae and higher plants) most likely represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This endosymbiotic theory is supported by various structural and genetic similarities. Primary chloroplasts are found among the green plants, where they contain chlorophyll b, and among the red algae and glaucophytes, where they contain phycobilins. It now appears that these chloroplasts probably had a single origin. Other algae likely took their chloroplasts from these forms by secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion. tenative: CLASS Chroobacteria CLASS Hormogoneae CLASS Gloeobacteria (Perhaps stromatolites are made by photosynthetic bacteria that do no produce oxygen.) Some live in the fur of sloths, providing a form of camouflage.
2,558,000,000 YBN	315) The Chloroflexi are a group of bacteria that produce ATP through photosynthesis. They make up the bulk of the green non-sulfur bacteria, though some are classified separately in the Phylum Thermomicrobia. They are named for their green pigment, usually found in photosynthetic bodies called chlorosomes. Chloroflexi are typically filamentous, and can move about through bacterial gliding. They are facultatively aerobic, but do not produce oxygen during photosynthesis, and have a different method of carbon fixation than other photosynthetic bacteria. Phylogenetic trees indicate that they had a separate origin. PHYLUM Chloroflexi CLASS Chloroflexi CLASS Thermomicrobia
2,500,000,000 YBN	52) End of Archean and start of Proterozoic Eon.
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2,335,000,000 YBN	290) In some eukaryotes (thought to be more ancient), the nucleolus just divides during mitosis, but in other eukaryotes the nucleolus is dissolved and rebuilt after nuclear division. In euglenids, kinetoplastids, dinoflagellates, some amoebae and some coccidians, the nucleolus remains visible throughout mitosis and divides into two, but in the majority of groups the nucleolus dissapears and reforms at telophase. That the nucleolus can divide by itself suggests that it was once a free living cell.
2,330,000,000 YBN	198) Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum evolves in a eukaryote cell. The rough ER manufactures and transports proteins destined for membranes and secretion. It synthesizes membrane, organellar, and excreted proteins. Minutes after proteins are synthesized most of them leave to the Golgi apparatus within vesicles. The rough ER also modifies, folds, and controls the quality of proteins. The smooth ER has functions in several metabolic processes. It takes part in the synthesis of various lipids (e.g., for building membranes such as phospholipids), fatty acids and steroids (e.g., hormones), and also plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification of the cell (enzymes in the smooth ER detoxify chemicals), and calcium storage. It also is a large transporter of nutrient found in each cell.
2,325,000,000 YBN	199) Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves (packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations). A vesicle is a closed structure, found only in eukaryotic cells, that is completely surrounded by a membrane but, unlike a vacuole, contains material that is not in the liquid state. Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves (packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations). A vesicle is a closed structure, found only in eukaryotic cells, that is completely surrounded by a membrane but, unlike a vacuole, contains material that is not in the liquid state. (Is this the only form of cellular digestion?)
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2,000,000,000 YBN	293) Genetic comparison shows the Eukaryote Phylum "Loukozoa" (Jakobea and Malawimonadea) originating now. These species have mitochondria with tubular cristae, and is the most ancient species that still has mitochondria. This species is the most ancient known species to have a shell (lorika). Jakobids and Malawimonads are also grouped as Excavates because they have a ventral feeding groove. Jakobids are flagellates with two flagella located at the anterior end of a ventral feeding groove (i.e., are excavate), with mitochondria, freely swimming or loricate (with protective shell). Flagellar apparatus with two basal bodies giving rise to two major microtubular roots, which support the margins of the ventral groove. Other cytoskeletal microtubules arise directly or indirectly from the basal bodies, no extrusomes. Jakobids have tubular mitochondrial cristae (transforming to flat cristae in Jakoba libera). (1) This indicates that flat evolved from tubular cristae. PHYLUM Loukozoa ORDER Jakobida ORDER Malawimonadida (before or after haplodiplontic lifestyle?) Reproduction=mitosis? PHYLUM Loukozoa ORDER Jakobida FAMILY Histionidae The jakobid family "Histionidae" reproduce asexually by binary fission. In this family no sexual reproduction has been observed yet. (1) FAMILY Jakobidae
1,990,000,000 YBN	301) Of the diplohaplonic species, those where the haploid and diploid stages look the same are called "isomorphic" and those where the two stages look different are called "heteromorphic". In land plants the haploid (gametophyte) stage is reduced to only a few cells. Since double DNA chromosomes (diploid) provides more possibilities than a single chromosome, diploid organisms have a selective advantage over haploid organisms.
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1,971,000,000 YBN	305) KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Cryptophyta CLASS Cryptomonadea ORDER Pyrenomonadales Novarino & Lucas, 1993 ORDER Cryptomonadales Pascher, 1913
1,874,000,000 YBN	61) Oldest algae fossil Grypania spiralis (an alga 10 cm long). Earliest filamentous multicellular eukaryote fossil. Oldest non-acritarch Eukaryote fossil. The date of this fossil was originally 2100mybn, but Schneider measured the Marquette Range Supergroup (MRS), A rhyolite in the Hemlock Formation, a mostly bimodal submarine volcanic deposit that is laterally correlative with the Negaunee Iron-formation, yields a sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) U-Pb zircon age of 1874 ± 9 Ma. In 1992, Han and Runnegar, finders of this fossil, compared the fossil to Acetabularia, a single-celled green algae. If true, this would make Grypania the oldest green algae fossil. Similar Grypania fossils have been found in the Jixian (Tianjin) and Montana that date to 1200 millions years ago. Indian populations of Grypania shown by Kumar (1995) that are 1 million years old preserve a distinct millimeter-scale ring-like part that may reflect underlying cell structure. Kumar writes: "... Grypania spiralis was originally described by Tandon and Kumar (1977a) as Katnia signhi, and considered .. a worm, Grpania spiralis shows a spiral disposition of the filament, the presence of septa and also terminal cells. Except for the size, these morphological features indicate an affinity with a Spirulina-type oscillatoriacean form. Grypania also shows a more or less straight and elongated filament. These morpholofical characteristics are comparable to an oscillatorian form, except for the size which is again megascopic. Grypania can be placed under the Cyanobacteria only when the megascopic size if not taken into consideration as no extant Cyanobacteria are megascopic. There is no other characteristic except the megascopic size which supports a eukaryoteic nature of these fossils for assigning them to Algae. Grypania has been place under the Algae by most of the workers ... However, there is a possibility that these forms are prokaryotes and simply represent the phenomenon of gigantism in Cyanobacteria in the Mesoproterozoic. ...". The Grypania fossils have no blade (leaf structure) or holdfast structures. The oldest algae fossil that has blade, stipe and holdfast are the algae from the Jixian dating to 1700 million years ago. (It seems unusual that there are no living algae that have a spiral form like this, and the similarity to a worm like helminthes seems possible. If algae there must be no leaf-like structures or hold-fast. There is a similarity with cyanobacteria - possibly cyanobacteria is not as flexible, for example to coil. But there are images of cyanobacteria that are coiled (see image of cyanobacteria coiled in testate amoeba shell. Another possibility is Oscillatoria cyanobacteria, which is named for the movement it makes as it orientates itself to the brightest light source available, from which it gains energy by photosynthesis. However, each filament or trichome is 5 microns in diameter - where Grypania appear to be 5 mm in diameter a difference of 1000x. Perhaps Grypania is some kind of cyanobacteria that is 1000x larger- but no such cyanobacteria have been found to exist now. Note that Oscillatoroia cyanobacteria trichomes coil into a spiral when the algae sense that their habitat is drying up. State arguments against Grypania being a worm.) Harvard professor Andrew Knoll describes Grypania fossils from 1450 million year old shales in Montana as "...most confidently interpreted as eukaryotic...". Knoll describes the evolution of eukaryotes according to the fossil record this way: "A modest diversity of problematic, possibly stem group protists occurs in ca 1800–1300 Myr old rocks. 1300–720 Myr fossils document the divergence of major eukaryotic clades, but only with the Ediacaran–Cambrian radiation of animals did diversity increase within most clades with fossilizable members.". (There is also some resemblance to the green algae Chaetomorpha (see images) - state how reproduce - what nucleus looks like.)	(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA
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1,700,000,000 YBN	6279) Earliest possible multicellular brown algae (Phaeophycaea) fossil. These fossils help support a limit for multicellular algal fossil (metaphyta) of at least 1700 million years ago. Earliest eukaryote fossil with both filamentous multicellularity and cell differentiation. This is also the earliest algae fossil with leaf structures. Knoll et al write in 2006 that: "Examination of Tuanshanzi structures in outcrop by one of us (A. H. Knoll) suggests that the features in question can alternatively be interpreted as rare, fortuitously shaped fragments deposited among many irregular mat shards.". (I can accept that these fossils are probably brown algae, in particular given the images of the mucilage canal, in addition to the editors of the journal "Science" accepting the paper for publication. Perhaps chemical tests could help to prove or disprove the claim.) (It's hard to believe that a long leafy brown algae would not leave a fossil imprint, in particular looking at these other algae fossils. So perhaps this implies that there is something inaccurate about the early genetic dates, or perhaps not enough fossil searching has been done.)	(Tuanshanzi Formation) Jixian Area, North China
1,586,000,000 YBN	294) Genetic comparison shows the Eukaryote Phylum "Percolozoa" (also called "Heterolobosea") (acrasid slime molds) evolving now. Percolozoa are a group of heterotrophic colourless protozoa, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and encysted stages. These are collectively referred to as amoeboflagellates, schizopyrenids, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia. Very closely related to Euglenozoa. All characteristics are like Euglenozoa: Percolozoa have mitochondria with discoid christae. No examples of sexual reproduction in the group have been found. Reproduction is through closed mitosis and involves an internal spindle. No chloroplasts (check) or (The chloroplasts are contained in three membranes and are pigmented similarly to the plants, suggesting they were retained from some captured green alga.) I think they are still haploid, mitosis duplicates in nucleus? Percolozoa age? Percolozoa are sometimes included in the group "Discicristates" because all members have mitochondria with "discoidal cristae". No eyespots. closed mitosis with internal spindle. The Percolozoa are the most ancient species to have members that move by pseudopodia, like amoeba. PHYLUM Percolozoa CLASS Heterolobosea ORDER Schizopyrenida Singh, 1952 ORDER Acrasida Shröter, 1886 (acrasids, cellular slime molds) ORDER Lyromonadida Cavalier-Smith, 1993 CLASS Percolatea ORDER Acrasida (acrasids, cellular slime molds): a. Cellular slime molds (Phylum Acrasiomycota) (ORDER Acrasida) exist as individual amoeboid cells. (Plasmodial slime molds, mycetozoa, which evolve later, exist as a plasmodium. ) b. They live in soil and feed on bacteria and yeast. c. As food runs out, amoeboid cells release a chemical that causes them to aggregate into a pseudoplasmodium. d. The pseudoplasmodium stage is temporary; it gives rise to sporangia that produce spores. e. Spores survive until more favorable environmental conditions return; then they germinate. f. Spore germinate to release haploid amoeboid cells, which is again the beginning of asexual cycle. g. Asexual cycle occurs under very moist conditions. Percolozoa feed on bacteria (phagocytosis) or feed through absorption (osmosis) of nutrients. (check) Most are small, around 15-40 µm in size, although many euglenids get up to 500 µm long. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove. Average life cycle=? days Average age of Percolozoa life=? days Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, freshwater, and on feces. There are a few marine and parasitic forms, including the species Naegleria fowleri, which can become pathogenic in humans and is often fatal. The group is closely related to the Euglenozoa, and share with them the unusual though not unique characteristic of having mitochondria with discoid cristae. The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the excavate group. The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20-40 μm in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others and unlike them do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove. Usually the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion. However, not all members are able to assume both forms. The genera Percolomonas, Lyromonas, and Psalteriomonas are known only as flagellates, while Vahlkampfia, Pseudovahlkampfia, and the acrasids do not have flagellate stages. As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia. These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the dictyostelids, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk. The Heterolobosea were first defined by Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages. Cavalier-Smith created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate Stephanopogon. (currently I have stephanopogon colpoda images under ciliates...) He maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms, but most others have expanded them to include the flagellates as well. Stephanopogon closely resembles certain ciliates and was originally classified with them, but is now considered a flagellate.
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1,570,000,000 YBN	197) The ancestor of all living eukaryotes divides into bikont and unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to all Chromalveolates, Excavates, Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.
1,520,000,000 YBN	202) Ribosomal RNA shows the Protist Phylum Amoebozoa (also called Ramicristates) which includes amoeba and slime molds evolving now. The Amoebozoa are a major group of amoeboid protozoa, including the majority that move by means of internal cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are characteristically blunt and finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are unicellular, and are common in soils and aquatic habitats, with some found as symbiotes of other organisms, including several pathogens. The Amoebozoa also include the slime moulds, multinucleate or multicellular forms that produce spores and are usually visible to the unaided eye. The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct groups of "slime molds", the Myxogastria and Protostelia (Dykstra and Keller 2000). This is a well-defined group of protists, characterized by the ability to form so-called "fruiting bodies". In some lineages of Mycetozoa the fruiting body is raised over the substratum on a distinct stalk. Both groups possess complex life cycles including an aggregation of cells, however the essential difference between them is that in Protostelia, only a pseudoplasmodium is formed (without fusion of the cells constituting the aggregate), while in Myxogastria a true plasmodium is formed (the cells completely fuse, forming a single organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra and Keller 2000). The monophyly of Mycetozoa was proposed based on elongation factor 1-alpha gene sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997) but it is not always recovered in SSU rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004; Nikolaev et al. 2004). Riboso mal RNA shows the Protist Phylum Amoebozoa (also called Ramicristates) which includes amoeba and slime molds evolving now. The Amoebozoa are a major group of amoeboid protozoa, including the majority that move by means of internal cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are characteristically blunt and finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are unicellular, and are common in soils and aquatic habitats, with some found as symbiotes of other organisms, including several pathogens. The Amoebozoa also include the slime moulds, multinucleate or multicellular forms that produce spores and are usually visible to the unaided eye. Mycetozoa are the slime molds. 4. Plasmodial Slime Molds a. Plasmodial slime molds exist as a plasmodium. (the earlier evolved acrasid cellular slime molds exist as individual amoeboid cells.) b. This diploid multinucleated cytoplasmic mass creeps along, phagocytizing decaying plant material. c. Fan-shaped plasmodium contains tubules of concentrated cytoplasm in which liquefied cytoplasm streams. d. Under unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g., drought), the plasmodium develops many sporangia that produce spores by meiosis. e. When mature, spores are released and survive until more favorable environmental conditions return; then each releases a haploid flagellated cell or an amoeboid cell. f. Two flagellated or amoeboid cells fuse to form diploid zygote that produces a multi-nucleated plasmodium. Nuclear division in giant amoebas (Peolobiont/Amoebozoa) is neither mitosis nor binary fission, but incorporates aspects of both (Fig. 3-7). Chromosomes are attached permanently to the nuclear membrane by their centromeres (MTOCs, microtubule organizing centers), and the nuclear membrane remains intact throughout division. After DNA duplication produces two chromatids, the point of attachment, the MTOC duplicates or divides, and microtubules are assembled between the two resulting MTOCs. Elongating microtubules form something akin to a spindle within the nuclear membrane that pushes the daughter chromosomes apart and elongate the membrane-bounded nucleus until it blebs in half in something akin to binary fission. Simple assembly of microtubules accomplishes the separation of daughter genomes in this simple nuclear division. In typical eukaryotic mitosis, the separation of daughter chromosomes is accomplished by a dual action, the disassembly of spindle fibers connecting the daughter chromosome to the polar MTOC, and assembly of spindle fibers running pole to pole. Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E. -Y. Chao write: "Amoebozoa are a key protozoan phylum because of the possibility that they are ancestrally uniciliate and unicentriolar (Cavalier-Smith 2000a,b); present data on the DHFR-TS gene fusion leaves open the possibility that they might be the earliest-diverging eukaryotes (Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith 2002), but they may be evolutionarily closer to bikonts or even opisthokonts. Amoebozoa comprise two subphyla (Cavalier-Smith 1998a): Lobosa, classical aerobic amoebae with broad ("lobose") pseudopods (including the testate Arcellinida), and Conosa (slime molds {Mycetozoa, e.g., Dictyostelium} and amitochondrial-often uniciliate-archamaebae {entamoebae, mastigamoebae}). Contrary to early analyses (Sogin 1991; Cavalier-Smith 1993a), there is no reason to regard Amoebozoa as polyphyletic; the defects of those classical uncorrected rRNA trees are shown by trees using 123 proteins that robustly establish the monophyly of both Archamoebae and Conosa (Bapteste et al. 2002). Unless the tree's root is within Conosa, Dictyostelium and Entamoeba must have evolved independently from aerobic flagellates by ciliary losses. A recent mitochondrial gene tree based on concatenating six different proteins grouped Dictyostelium with Physarum (99% support) and both Mycetozoa as sisters to Acanthamoeba (99% support), thus providing strong evidence for the monophyly of Mycetozoa and the grouping of Lobosa and Conosa as Amoebozoa (Forget et al. 2002)-the same tree also strongly supports the idea based on morphology that Allomyces should be excluded from Chytridiomycetes (in the separate class Allomycetes) and is phylogenetically closer to zygomycetes and higher fungi (Cavalier-Smith 1998a, 2000c). Furthermore, the derived gene fusion between two cytochrome oxidase genes, coxI and coxII (Lang et al. 1999), strongly supports the holophyly of Mycetozoa. Since Archamoebae secondarily lost mitochondria, the root cannot lie among them either-although anaerobiosis in Archamoebae is derived, it is unjustified to conclude from this that their simple ciliary root organization, which was a key reason for considering them early eukaryotes (Cavalier-Smith 1991c), is also secondarily derived (Edgcomb et al. 2002). Thus the root of the eukaryote tree cannot lie within the Conosa. As Mycetozoa and Archamoebae have very long-branch rRNA sequences, Conosa were excluded from the analysis in Fig. 1, which includes only Lobosa. Although the monophyly of Acanthamoebida (99%) and of Euamoebida (85%) is well supported, the basal branching of the Lobosa is so poorly resolved that the monophyly of Lobosa might appear open to question. The four lobosan lineages apparently diverged early. However, in the 279- and 227-species trees, which included Conosa, anaeromonads did not intrude into the Amoebozoa as they do in Fig. 1, and Amoebozoa were monophyletic (low support) except for the exclusion of M. invertens. M. invertens is another wandering branch, which in some taxon sample/methods groups very weakly with other Amoebozoa, but more often ends up in a different place in each tree! We concur with the judgment of Milyutina et al. (2001)Edgcomb et al. (2002) that it should not be regarded as a pelobiont or Archamoeba, but as a lobosan that independently became an anaerobe with degenerate mitochondria. Its tendency to drift around the tree, coupled with its short branch, suggests that it may be a particularly early-diverging amoebozoan lineage. If so, its unicentriolar condition would give added support to the idea that Amoebozoa are ancestrally uniciliate, if it could be shown that Amoebozoa are either holophyletic or not at the base of the tree. Most, if not all, amoebae evolved from amoeboid zooflagellates by multiple ciliary losses (Cavalier-Smith 2000a). As the uniciliate condition is widespread within Amoebozoa (Cavalier-Smith 2000a, 2002b), it may be their ancestral condition; if so, ordinary nonciliate amoebozoan amoebae arose several times independently. Evolution of amoebae from zooflagellates by ciliary loss also occurred separately in Choanozoa to produce Nuclearia and in several bikont groups, notably Percolozoa (heterolobosean amoebae, e.g., Vahlkampfia) and Cercozoa. However, we cannot currently exclude the possibility that the eukaryote tree is rooted within the lobosan Amoebozoa, in which case one of its nonciliate lineages (Euamoebida or Vanellidae) might be primitively nonciliate and the earliest-diverging eukaryotic lineage. However, as the idea that the nucleus and a single centriole and cilium coevolved in the ancestral eukaryote (Cavalier-Smith 1987a) retains its theoretical merits, we think it more likely that all Amoebozoa are derived from a uniciliate ancestor and that crown Amoebozoa are a clade.". Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Many are only 10-20 μm in size, but they also include many of the larger protozoa. The famous species Amoeba proteus may reach 800 μm in length, and partly on account of its size is often studied as a representative cell. Multinucleate amoebae like Chaos and Pelomyxa may be several millimetres in length, and some slime moulds cover several square feet. The cell is typically divided into a granular central mass, called endoplasm, and a clear outer layer, called ectoplasm. During locomotion the endoplasm flows forwards and the ectoplasm runs backwards along the outside of the cell. Many amoebae move with a definite anterior and posterior; in essence the cell functions as a single pseudopod. They usually produce numerous clear projections called subpseudopodia (or determinate pseudopodia), which have a defined length and are not directly involved in locomotion. Other amoebozoans may form multiple indeterminate pseudopodia, which are more or less tubular and are mostly filled with granular endoplasm. The cell mass flows into a leading pseudopod, and the others ultimately retract unless it changes direction. Subpseudopodia are usually absent. In addition to a few naked forms like Amoeba and Chaos, this includes most amoebae that produce shells. These may be composed of organic materials, as in Arcella, or of collected particles cemented together, as in Difflugia, with a single opening through which the pseudopodia emerge. The primary mode of nutrition is by phagocytosis: the cell surrounds potential food particles, sealing them into vacuoles where the may be digested and absorbed. Some amoebae have a posterior bulb called a uroid, which may serve to accumulate waste, periodically detaching from the rest of the cell. When food is scarce, most species can form cysts, which may be carried aerially and introduce them to new environments. In slime moulds, these structures are called spores, and form on stalked structures called fruiting bodies or sporangia. Most Amoebozoa lack flagella and more generally do not form microtubule-supported structures except during mitosis. However, flagella occur among the pelobionts, and many slime moulds produce biflagellate gametes. The flagella is generally anchored by a cone of microtubules, suggesting a close relationship to the opisthokonts. The mitochondria characteristically have branching tubular cristae, but have been lost among pelobionts and the parasitic entamoebids, collectively referred to as archamoebae based on the earlier assumption that the absence was primitive. Traditionally all amoebae with lobose pseudopods were treated together as the Lobosea, placed with other amoeboids in the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda, but these were considered to be unnatural groups. Structural and genetic studies identified several independent groups: the percolozoans, pelobionts, and entamoebids. In phylogenies based on rRNA their representatives were separate from other amoebae, and appeared to diverge near the base of eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime molds. However, revised trees by Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996 suggested that the remaining lobosans do form a monophyletic group, and that the archamoebae and Mycetozoa are closely related to it, although the percolozoans are not. Subsequently they emended (to improve by editing) the older phylum Amoebozoa to refer to this supergroup. Studies based on other genes have provided strong support for the unity of this group. Patterson treated most with the testate filose amoebae as the ramicristates, based on mitochondrial similarities, but the latter are now removed to the Cercozoa. Amoebae are difficult to classify, and relationships within the phylum remain confused. Originally it was divided into the subphyla Conosa, comprising the archamoebae and Mycetozoa, and Lobosa, including the more typical lobose amoebae. Molecular phylogenies provide some support for this division if the Lobosa are understood to be paraphyletic. They also suggest the morphological families of naked lobosans may correspond at least partly to natural groups: * Leptomyxida * Amoebidae * Hartmannellidae * Paramoebidae * Vannellidae * Vexilliferidae * Acanthamoebidae * Stereomyxidae However, many amoebae have not yet been studied via molecular techniques, including all those that produce shells (Arcellinida). PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913 emend.) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Breviatea CLASS Variosea CLASS Phalansterea (T. Cavalier-Smith, 2000) SUBPHYLUM Lobosa (Carpenter, 1861) Cavalier-Smith, 1997 (lobose amoebas) CLASS Amoebaea CLASS Testacealobosea (includes shelled lobosid amebas {testate amoebas}) CLASS Holomastigea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1997 ("1996-1997") SUBPHYLUM Conosa (Cavalier-Smith, 1998) INTRAPHYLUM Mycetozoa (De Bary, 1859) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 (Slime Molds) SUPERCLASS Eumyxa (Cavalier-Smith, 1993) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Protostelea (C.J. Alexopoulos & C.W. Mims, 1979 orthog. emend.) CLASS Myxogastrea (E.M. Fries, 1829 stat. nov. J. Feltgen, 1889 orthog. emend.) (plasmodial slime molds) SUPERCLASS Dictyostelia (Lister, 1909) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Dictyostelea™ (D.L. Hawksworth et al., 1983, orthog. emend.) INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae (Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Pelobiontea (F.C. Page, 1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981) CLASS Entamoebea (T. Cavalier-Smith, 1991) SUBPHYLUM Lobosa SUBPHYLUM Conosa The Conosea unifies amoebae which usually possess flagellate stages or are amoeboflagellates. This clade consists of two relatively solid groups � the Mycetozoa and Archamoebae, grouped by Cavalier-Smith (1998) in the taxon Conosa, as well as a number of independent lineages, including two flagellates � Phalansterium (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004) and Multicilia (Nikolaev et al. 2004), and two gymnamoebae � Gephyramoeba and Filamoeba (Amaral Zettler et al. 2000). Because of large variations of the substitution rates in SSU rRNA genes within this clade, its internal relationships are not resolved yet. The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct groups of "slime molds", the Myxogastria and Protostelia (Dykstra and Keller 2000). This is a well-defined group of protists, characterized by the ability to form so-called "fruiting bodies". In some lineages of Mycetozoa the fruiting body is raised over the substratum on a distinct stalk. Both groups possess complex life cycles including an aggregation of cells, however the essential difference between them is that in Protostelia, only a pseudoplasmodium is formed (without fusion of the cells constituting the aggregate), while in Myxogastria a true plasmodium is formed (the cells completely fuse, forming a single organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra and Keller 2000). The monophyly of Mycetozoa was proposed based on elongation factor 1-alpha gene sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997) but it is not always recovered in SSU rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004; Nikolaev et al. 2004). The Archamoebae comprise amoeboid and amoeboflagellate protists characterized by a secondary absence of mitochondria (mostly due to parasitism or life in anoxic environments). This group includes the free-living genera Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, and Pelomyxa (the pelobionts) and the parasitic genera Entamoeba and Endolimax (the entamoebids). The consistent grouping of all these amitochondriate amoeboid organisms in both SSU rRNA and actin gene phylogenies (Fahrni et al. 2003) suggests a single loss of the mitochondria during the evolution of Amoebozoa. CLASS Amoebaea ORDER Euamoebida Lepsi, 1960 FAMILY Amoebidae (Ehrenberg 1838) The Amoebidae are a family of amoebozoa, including naked amoebae that produce multiple pseudopodia of indeterminate length. These are roughly cylindrical in form, with a central stream of granular endoplasm, and do not have subpseudopodia. During locomotion one pseudopod typically becomes dominant, and the others are retracted as the body flows into it. In some cases the cell moves by "walking", with the relatively permanent pseudopodia serving as limbs. The most important genera are Amoeba and Chaos, which are set apart from the others by longitudinal ridges. They group together on molecular trees, suggesting the Amoebidae are a natural group. Shelled amoebozoans have not been studied molecularly but produce very similar pseudopodia, so although they are traditionally classified separately they may be closely related to this group. GENUS Amoeba (Bery de St. Vincent 1822) Amoeba (also spelled ameba) is a genus of protozoa that moves by means of temporary projections called pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. The word amoeba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids. Amoeba itself is found in freshwater, typically on decaying vegetation from streams, but is not especially common in nature. However, because of the ease with which they may be obtained and kept in the lab, they are common objects of study, both as representative protozoa and to demonstrate cell structure and function. The cells have several lobose pseudopods, with one large tubular pseudopod at the anterior and several secondary ones branching to the sides. The most famous species, Amoeba proteus, is 700-800 μm in length, but many others are much smaller. Each has a single nucleus, and a simple contractile vacuole which maintains its osmotic pressure, as its most recognizable features. Early naturalists referred to Amoeba as the Proteus animalcule, after a Greek god who could change his shape. The name "amibe" was given to it by Bery St. Vincent, from the Greek amoibe, meaning change. A good method of collecting amoeba is to lower a jar upside down until it is just above the sediment surface. Then one should slowly let the air escape so the top layer will be sucked into the jar. Deeper sediment should not be allowed to get sucked in. It is possible to slowly move the jar when tilting it to collect from a larger area. If no amoeba are found, one can try introducing some rice grains into the jar and waiting for them to start to rot. The bacteria eating the rice will be eaten by the amoeba, thus increasing the population and making them easier to find. Family Hartmannellidae (Volkonsky 1931) The Hartmannellidae are a common family of amoebozoa, usually found in soils. When active they tend to be roughly cylindrical in shape, with a single leading pseudopod and no subpseudopodia. This form somewhat resembles a slug, and as such they are also called limax amoebae. Trees based on rRNA show the Hartmannellidae are paraphyletic to the Amoebidae and Leptomyxida, which may adopt similar forms. FAMILY Vannellidae (Bovee 1970) The Vannellidae are a distinctive family of amoebozoa. During locomotion they tend to be flattened and fan-shaped, although some are long and narrow, and have a prominent clear margin at the anterior. In most amoebae, the endoplasm glides forwards through the center of the cell, but in vannellids the cell undergoes a sort of rolling motion, with the outer membrane sliding around like a tank tread. These amoebae are usually 10-40 μm in size, but some are smaller or larger. The most common genus is Vannella, found mainly in soils, but also in freshwater and marine habitats. Trees based on rRNA support the monophyly of the family. SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae (Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Pelobiontea F.C. Page, 1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981 ORDER Pelobiontida (Page 1976) The pelobionts are a small group of amoebozoa. The most notable member is Pelomyxa, a giant amoeba with multiple nuclei and inconspicuous non-motile flagella. The other genera, called mastigamoebae, are often uninucleate, have a single anterior flagellum used in swimming, and produce numerous determinate pseudopodia. Pelobionts are closely related to the entamoebids and like them have no mitochondria; in addition, pelobionts also do not have dictyosomes. At one point these absences were considered primitive. However, molecular trees place the two groups with other lobose amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa, so these are secondary losses. SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae (Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Entamoebea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1991 The entamoebids or entamoebae are a group of amoebozoa found as internal parasites or commensals of animals. The cells are uninucleate small, typically 10-100 μm across, and usually have a single lobose pseudopod taking the form of a clear anterior bulge. There are two major genera, Entamoeba and Endolimax. They include several species that are pathogenic in humans, most notably Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amoebic dysentery. Entamoebids lack mitochondria. This is a secondary loss, possibly associated with their parasitic life-cycle. Studies show they are close relatives of the pelobionts, another group of amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike them entamoebids retain dictyosomes. Both groups are now placed alongside other lobose amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa. Studying Entamoeba invadens, David Biron of the Weizmann Institute of Science and coworkers found that about one third of the cells are unable to separate unaided and recruit a neighboring amoeba (dubbed the "midwife") to complete the fission. He writes: "When an amoeba divides, the two daughter cells stay attached by a tubular tether which remains intact unless mechanically severed. If called upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife travels up to 200 μm towards the dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a straight trajectory with an average velocity of about 0.5 μm/s. The midwife then proceeds to rupture the connection, after which all three amoebae move on." They also reported a similar behavior in Dictyostelium. Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic species of entamoebid that is important clinically in humans only because it can be confused with Entamoeba histolytica, which is pathogenic, on microscopic examination of stained stool specimens. A simple finding of Entamoeba coli trophozoites or cysts in a stool specimen requires no treatment. Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic parasitic protozoan, classified as an entamoebid. It infects predominantly humans and other primates. Diverse mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected but usually do not shed cysts (the environmental survival form of the organism) with their feces, thus do not contribute significantly to transmission. The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh feces; cysts survive outside the host in water and soils and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. When swallowed they cause infections by excysting (to the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract. Endolimax nana, a small entamoebid that is a commensal of the human intestine, causes no known disease. It is most significant in medicine because it can provide false positives for other tests, such as for the related species Entamoeba histolytica which causes amoebic dysentery, and because its presence indicates that the host once consumed feces. It forms cysts with four nuclei which excyst in the body and become trophozoites. Endolimax nana nuclei have a large endosome somewhat off-center and small amounts of visible chromatin or none at all. Actinopod reproduction may involve binary fission or the formation of swarmer cells, and sexual processes occur in some groups. Their mitochondrial cristae are usually tubular, but in some groups there are vesicular or flattened, plate-like cristae. (Are amoeba haplodiploid?)
1,492,000,000 YBN	173)
1,380,000,000 YBN	220) Protists Opisthokonts (ancestor of Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).
1,300,000,000 YBN	38)	(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada
1,300,000,000 YBN	67)
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1,300,000,000 YBN	219) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Plantae Haeckel, 1866 - plants SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta Cavalier-Smith, 1981 PHYLUM Rhodophyta Wettstein, 1922 - red algae SUBPHYLUM Rhodellophytina Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Rhodellophyceae™ Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUBPHYLUM Macrorhodophytina Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Bangiophyceae CLASS Florideophyceae
1,300,000,000 YBN	323) PHYLUM Metamonada ORDER Carpediemondida ORDER Diplomonadida ORDER Retortamonadida CLASS Parabasalia ORDER Trichomonadida ORDER Hypermastigida CLASS Anaeromonada ORDER Oxymonadida ORDER Trimastigida
1,274,000,000 YBN	187) A eukaryote rhodophyte (red alga) is enslaved by a chromealveolate eukaryote to form a plastid (also called chloroplasts) in the chromealveolate. This kind of plastid is presumably inherited by all other chromalveolates (brown algae, diatoms, water molds, Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa, ciliates) that have plastids. If this red alga endosymbiosis occured only once, then all chromalveolates with plastids inherited them and all without lost them. Ciliates presumably lost any inherited plastids.
1,250,000,000 YBN	15)
1,250,000,000 YBN	88) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the "Chromalveolates" {KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} evolving now. Chromalveolates include the Chromista and Alveolata. The Chromista include the 3 Phyla Haptophyta, Cryptophyta (Cryptomonads), and Heterokontophyta (brown algae {kelp}, diatoms, water molds). Alveolata include the 3 Phyla Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa (Malaria, Toxoplasmosis), and Ciliophora (ciliates). Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the "Chromalveolates" evolving now. Chromalveolates include the Chromista and Alveolata. The Chromista include the 3 Phyla Haptophyta, Cryptophyta (Cryptomonads), and Heterokontophyta (brown algae {kelp}, diatoms, water molds). Alveolata include the 3 Phyla Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa (Malaria, Toxoplasmosis), and Ciliophora (ciliates). Chromealveolates have mitochondria with tubular cristae. Thomas Cavalier-Smith writes: "The chromalveolate clade (Cavalier-Smith 1999) and its constituent taxa, kingdom Chromista (Cavalier-Smith 1981) and protozoan infrakingdom Alveolata (Cavalier-Smith 1991b), were all proposed based on morphological, biochemical, and evolutionary reasoning about protein targeting before there was sequence evidence for any of them. Now all are strongly supported by such evidence. Chromalveolates comprise all algae with chlorophyll c (the chromophyte algae) and all their nonphotosynthetic descendants. They arose by a single symbiogenetic event in which an early unicellular red alga was phagocytosed by a biciliate host and enslaved to provide photosynthate (Cavalier-Smith 1999, 2002c, 2003a). The strongest evidence that this occurred once only in their cenancestor is the replacement of the red algal plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by a duplicate of the gene for the cytosolic version of this enzyme in all four chromalveolate groups with plastids: the alveolate sporozoa and dinoflagellates and the chromist cryptomonads and chromobiotes (Fast et al. 2001). It would be incredible for such gene duplication, retargeting by acquiring bipartite targeting sequences, and loss of the original red algal gene to have occurred convergently in four groups, but it was already pretty incredible that these groups would all have evolved a similar protein-targeting system independently and all happened to enslave a red alga, evolve chlorophyll c, and place their plastids within the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) independently. Yet many assumed just this because of the false dogma that symbiogenesis is easy and the failure of all these groups to cluster in rRNA trees. For chromobiotes this retargeting of GAPDH has been demonstrated only for heterokonts-information is lacking for haptophytes. However, there are five strong synapomorphies for Chromobiota, making it highly probable that the group is holophyletic (Cavalier-Smith 1994). They share the presence of the periplastid reticulum in the periplastid space instead of a nucleomorph like cryptomonads, they uniquely make the carotenoid fucoxanthin and chlorophyll c3, they uniquely have a single autofluorescent cilium, and they have tubular mitochondrial cristae with an intracristal filament. Five plastid genes now extremely robustly support the monophyly of both chromists and chromobiotes (Yoon et al. 2002). We are confident that comparable sequence evidence from nuclear genes will also eventually catch up with the general biological evidence for the holophyly of chromobiotes to convince even the most skeptical, who ignore or discount such valuable evidence that chromobiotes are holophyletic." Chromista include phyla: Heterokontophyta (heterokonts) (many classes) (includes colored: golden algae, axodines, diatoms, yellow-green algea, brown algae, colorless: water moulds, slime nets) Haptophyta Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) (many genera) Alveolates include the phyla: Dinoflagellata (Dinoflagellates) Apicomplexa (Apicomplexans) Ciliophora (ciliates) In 1981 Cavalier-Smith created a new kingdom called "Chromista" in which all chromalveolates are placed. There are a number of classification schemes for the kingdom Protista and no one system has emerged as most popular yet.
1,250,000,000 YBN	201)	(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada
1,230,000,000 YBN	153)
1,200,000,000 YBN	221)
1,200,000,000 YBN	6283) Earliest Green Algae fossil. Organic cysts resembling modern Micromonadophyceae cysts date from about 1.2 billion years ago. Tasmanites formed the Permian "white coal", or tasmanite, deposits of Tasmaniaand and in similar deposits in Alaska. Certain Ulvophyceae fossils that date from about one billion years ago are abundant in Paleozoic rocks.	Siberia, Russia
1,200,000,000 YBN	6295) Earliest possible fossil worm trails. The trace-like fossils suggest the presence of vermiform (the long, thin, cylindrical shape of a worm), mucus-producing, motile organisms.	(Stirling Range Formation) Southwestern Australia
1,180,000,000 YBN	6280) Protists Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS} (ancestor of all Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS}). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Myzozoa Cavalier-Smith & Chao, 2004 PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein, 1901) Copeland, 1956 - ciliates
1,150,000,000 YBN	86) Genetic comparison shows Phylum Glaucophyta evolving now. Some people categorize Glaucophyta in the kingdom Plantae instead of Protists, and label glaucophyta the most ancient living plants. The glaucophytes, also referred to as glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are a tiny group of freshwater algae. They are distinguished mainly by the presence of cyanelles, primitive chloroplasts which closely resemble cyanobacteria and retain a thin peptidoglycan wall between their two membranes. It is thought that the green algae (from which the higher plants evolved), red algae and glaucophytes acquired their chloroplasts from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The other types of algae received their chloroplasts through secondary endosymbiosis, by engulfing one of those types of algae along with their chloroplasts. The glaucophytes are of obvious interest to biologists studying the development of chloroplasts: if the hypothesis that primary chloroplasts had a single origin is correct, glaucophytes are closely related to both green plants and red algae, and may be similar to the original alga type from which all of these developed. Glaucophytes have mitochondria with flat cristae, and undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Motile forms have two unequal flagella, which may have fine hairs and are anchored by a multilayered system of microtubules, both of which are similar to forms found in some green algae. The chloroplasts of glaucophytes, like the cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of red algae, use the pigment phycobilin to capture some wavelengths of light; the green algae and higher plants have lost that pigment. There are three main genera included here. Glaucocystis is non-motile, though it retains very short vestigial flagella, and has a cellulose wall. Cyanophora is motile and lacks a cell wall. Gloeochaete has both motile and non-motile stages, and has a cell wall that does not appear to be composed of cellulose. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Plantae Haeckel, 1866 - plants SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta Cavalier-Smith, 1981 PHYLUM Glaucophyta Skuja, 1954 CLASS Glaucocystophyceae Schaffner, 1922 (I think it's tough to say that the more ancient Heterokonts, brown algae (Phaeophyta), and golden algae (Chrysophyta) are not also plants, and the oldest living plants. Perhaps glaucophyta are the first green plants, or perhaps that should be reserved for multicellular species.)
1,150,000,000 YBN	188)
1,100,000,000 YBN	75) Ribosomal RNA shows most ancient living fungi phylum "Microsporidia" evolving now. Microsporidia are parasites of animals, now considered to be extremely reduced fungi. Most infect insects, but they are also responsible for common diseases of crustaceans and fish, and have been found in most other animal groups, including humans and other mammals which can be parasitized by species of Encephalitozoon. Replication takes place within the host's cells, which are infected by means of unicellular spores. These vary from 1-40 μm, making them some of the smallest eukaryotes. They also have the shortest eukaryotic genomes. Microsporidia are unusual in lacking mitochondria, and also lack motile structures such as flagella. The spores are protected by a layered wall including proteins and chitin. Their interior is dominated by a unique coiled structure called a polar tube (not to be confused with the polar filaments of Myxozoa). In most cases there are two closely associated nuclei, forming a diplokaryon, but sometimes there is only one. Intracellular parasites, no mitochondria, ribosomes are unusual in being of prokaryotic size (70S) and lacking characteristic eukaryotic 5.8S ribosomal RNA as a separate molecule in the microsporidia but is incorporated into the 23S r RNA. During infection, the polar tube penetrates the host cell (the process has been compared by Patrick J. Keeling to "turning a garden hose inside out"), and the contents of the spore are pumped through it. Keeling likens the system to a combination of "harpoon and hypodermic syringe", adding that it is "one of the most sophisticated infection mechanisms in biology". Once inside the host cell, the sporoplasm grows, dividing or forming a multinucleate plasmodium before producing new spores. The plasmodium divides by merogony to produce merozoites that enter other host cells, to repeat merogony, or to undergo sporogony. The latter parasites divide by binary fission to produce numerous sporoblasts which develop into spores. The life cycle varies considerably. Some have a simple asexual life cycle, while others have a complex life cycle involving multiple hosts and both asexual and sexual reproduction. Different types of spores may be produced at different stages, probably with different functions including autoinfection (transmission within a single host). The Microsporidia often cause chronic, debilitating diseases rather than lethal infections. Effects on the host include reduced longevity, fertility, weight, and general vigor. Vertical transmission of microsporidia is frequently reported. Because they are unicellular, Microsporidia were traditionally treated as protozoa, and like other amitochondriate eukaryotes were considered to have diverged very early on. However, other genes place them alongside or within the Fungi, and this is supported by several chemical and morphological features. In particular they appear to be allied with the Zygomycota or Ascomycota. Comparison of tubulin gene sequences suggest that they are related to fungi; hosts include most invertebrate phyla; all classes of vertebrates, the greatest number of species being known from arthropods and fish; with growing and dividing stages (meronts and sporonts), and spores which are used for transmission between hosts; meronts with one nucleus or two closely adhering and synchronously dividing nuclei; with endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes and an atypical dictyosome but no mitochondria, flagella, or cytoskeletal structures; sporonts have more abundant endoplasmic reticulum and develop a surface coat which becomes the outer layer of the spore wall; spores unicellular with one or two nuclei, a polar tube (polar filament), the polaroplast and the posterior vacuole; cytoplasm and nucleus (or nuclei) become the infective agent (sporoplasm), as it emerges from the spore; meronts, ranging from small rounded cells to plasmodia or ribbon-like formations, divide repeatedly by binary fission, plasmotomy or multiple fission; merogony is followed by sporogony, in which cells known as sporonts are committed to spore production; sporonts, divide into sporoblasts, the number of which is characteristic of the genera; sporoblasts mature into spores; but individual life cycles are highly variable; meiosis occurs and this indicates that gametogenesis and fusion of gametes must occur but this has been recognised for only a few species; genera with an alternation of diplokaryotic and monokaryotic stages can be dimorphic and heterosporous. Genus descriptions are usually based on the type species. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Fungi (Linnaeus, 1753) Nees, 1817 - fungi PHYLUM Microsporidia (Balbiani, 1882) Weiser, 1977 (binucleate haploid?)
1,100,000,000 YBN	6284) Oldest molecular fossil evidence of Dinoflagellates, triaromatic dinosteranes. Dinosterane, derived from dinosterol produced by dinoflagellates, occurs in the 1.1 Ga Nonesuch Formation, in the United States.
1,080,000,000 YBN	87) No examples of sexual reproduction in the group have been found. Reproduction is through closed mitosis and involves an internal spindle. At least one account of a sexual cycle has been reported in Scytomonas. The chloroplasts are contained in three membranes and are pigmented similarly to the plants, suggesting they were retained from some captured green alga. All Euglenozoa have mitochondria with discoid cristae, which in the kinetoplastids characteristically have a DNA-containing granule or kinetoplast associated with the flagellar bases. I think they are still haploid, mitosis duplicates in nucleus? Euglenozoa age? This group is sometimes called "Discicristates" because all members have mitochondria with "discoidal cristae". Euglenids are the first eukaryotes with an eyespot. Most colored euglenids also have a stigma or eyespot, which is a small splotch of red pigment on one side of the flagellar pocket. This shades a collection of light sensitive crystals near the base of the leading flagellum, so the two together act as a sort of directional eye. Euglenozoa eyepots evolved from chloroplasts. This is the beginning of a light sensory system which evolves to eyes? A small number of euglinids have chloroplasts and can photosynthesize. In these species, the chloroplasts contain three membranes and are thought to have evolved at least 900 million years later from a captured green alga. Euglenoids, however, share reproductive habits with their kinetoplastid relations by reproducing mainly by asexual binary fission. Euglenoids reproduce very rapidly, absorbing their flagellum and dividing haploid cells through mitosis. Mitosis produces 4-8 flagellated haploid cells, called zoospores. The zoospores then break out of the parent cell and grow to full size. condensed chromosomes: yes in all kinetoplasts, and some euglenophyta. polar structures: none number of flagella: kinetoplastids=(1 in some) 2, euglenophyta=2 (4 in some) life forms: unicellular: flagellated multicellular: colonial cell covering: pellicle 2. Euglenoids are small (10-500 µm) freshwater unicellular organisms. 3. One-third of all genera have chloroplasts; those that lack chloroplasts ingest or absorb their food. 4. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by three rather than two membranes. a. Their chloroplasts resemble those of green algae. b. They are probably derived from a green algae through endosymbiosis. 5. The pyrenoid outside the chloroplast produces an unusual type of carbohydrate polymer (paramylon) not seen in green algae. 6. They possess two flagella, one of which typically is much longer and than the other and projects out of a vase-shaped invagination; it is called a tinsel flagellum because it has hairs on it. 7. Near the base of the longer flagellum is a red eyespot that shades a photoreceptor for detecting light. 8. They lack cell walls, but instead are bounded by a flexible pellicle composed of protein strips side-by-side. 9. A contractile vacuole, similar to certain protozoa, eliminates excess water. 10. Euglenoids reproduce by longitudinal cell division; sexual reproduction is not known to occur.
1,080,000,000 YBN	97)
1,080,000,000 YBN	203)
1,050,000,000 YBN	169) Protists Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called Heterokonts) (ancestor of all brown and golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu)). Some people group stemenopiles and alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS} together in the supergroup chromalveolates {KrOM-aLVEO-leTS), having a single common ancestor. The strameopiles consist of some 9,000 species including diatoms, brown and golden algae (the Chrysophytes), some heterotrophic flagellates, labyrinthulids (slime nets), and Oomycetes and Hyphochytridiomycetes (formerly classified as fungi). A few stramenopiles form complex, rigid colonies and may reach extremely large sizes. It may be difficult to imagine that diatoms and kelp are closely related. There similarity is based on the fact that that almost all have unique, complex, three-part tubular hairs on the flagella at some stage in the life cycle. The name Stramenopiles (Latin stamen, "straw"; pilius "hair") refers to the appearance of these hairs. Stramenopiles are found in a variety of habitats. Freshwater and marine plankton are rich in diatoms and chrysophytes, and they can also occur in moist soils, sea ice, snow and glaciers. Stramenopiles have even been found living in clouds in the atmosphere. Heterotrophic free-living stramenopiles are also found in marine, estuarine, and freshwater habitats. A few are symbiotic on algae in marine or stuarine environments. Many produce calcite or silicon scales, shells, cysts, or test, which are preserved in the fossil record. The oldest of these fossils are from the Cambrian/Precambrian boundary about 550 million years ago.
1,050,000,000 YBN	304) Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta" Coccolithophores evolving now. Some Haptophytes are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis), and this group is the most primitive with a haplodiploid life cycle. Haptophytes are single cellular. Haptophytes are found only in all oceans (marine) and are flagellates, almost all with plastids with chlorophylls a and c, with two flagella and one additional locomotor/feeding organelle, the haptonema. Haptophyta are a group of algae (phytoplankton). The chloroplasts are pigmented similarly to those of the heterokonts, such as golden algae, but the structure of the rest of the cell is different, so it may be that they are a separate line whose chloroplasts are derived from similar endosymbionts. The cells typically have two slightly unequal flagella, both of which are smooth, and a unique organelle called a haptonema, which is superficially similar to a flagellum but differs in the arrangement of microtubules and in its use. Haptophytes have tubular mitochondria cristae. Most haptophytes are coccolithophores, which live strictly in the oceans (marine) and are ornmmented with calcified scales called coccoliths, which are sometimes found as microfossils. Other planktonic haptophytes of note include Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium, which periodically form toxic marine algal blooms. Both molecular and morphological evidence supports their division into five orders. Emiliania is a small organism that is famous for turning huge portions of the ocean bright turquoise during its blooms. They are also known for contributing to the white cliffs of Dover because of the calcite in their coccolith cell structure. They play a very important role in the carbon cycle in the ocean because they form calcium carbonate exoskeletons that sink to the bottom of the ocean floor when they die. They are also one of the worlds major calcite producers. Sexual reproduction: Asexual, Open mitosis with spindle nucleating (originating?) in cytoplasm. Phaeocystis colonial cells diploid, motile cells haploid or diploid; reproduction by vegetative division of non-motile cells and fragmentation of colonies, vegetative division of motile cells, or by fusion of gametes. Members of the Haptophytes Genus "Phaocystis" form colonies (see photo). Haptophytes are also called "Prymnesiophytes" Some Haptophyta have hard shell made of calcium carbonate evolves around the single-celled species living in the ocean. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Haptophyta CLASS Pavlovophyceae ORDER Pavlovales CLASS Prymnesiophyceae ORDER Prymnesiales ORDER Phaeocystales ORDER Isochrysidales ORDER Coccolithales
1,040,000,000 YBN	313) Genetic comparison shows Chromalveolate Alveolata, Dinoflagellates evolve. Dinoflagellates reproduce mainly by haploid mitosis, but also reproduce sexually. The ciliophora, apicomplexa and dinoflagelatta are under the title alveolata because they have an alveolar membran system, which contains flattened membrane-bound sacs (alveoli) lying beneath the outer cell membrane. In dinoflagellates, the chromosomes are always visible and do not condense prior to mitosis. The chromosomes are attached to the nuclear envelope, which persists during mitosis. The main method of reproduction of the dinoflagellates is by longitudinal cell division, with each daughter cell receiving one of the flagella ad a portion of the theca and then constructing the missing parts in a very intricate sequence. Some nonmotile species form zoospores, which may be colonial. A number of species reproduce sexually, mostly by isogamy, but a few species reproduce by heterogamy (anisogamy). Dinoflagellate zygotes are similar to some acritarchs (early eukaryote fossils). Some Dinoflagellates produce cysts. The dinoflagellates are a large group of flagellate protists. Most are marine plankton, but they are common in fresh water habitats as well; their populations are distributed depending on temperate, saltiness, or depth. About half of all dinoflagellates are photosynthetic, and these make up the largest group of eukaryotic algae aside from the diatoms. Being primary producers make them an important part of the food chain. Some species, called zooxanthellae, are endosymbionts of marine animals and protozoa, and play an important part in the biology of coral reefs. Other dinoflagellates are colorless predators on other protozoa, and a few forms are parasitic. Some dinoflagellates are reported to be filamentous (multicellular). Mitochondri a christae are tubular. Dinoflagellates are haploid (haplontic). If acritachs are dinoflagellates, then dinoflagellates may date back to at least 1.8 billion years and perhaps even 3.5 billion years to the earliest known acritarchs. This is also evidence that the Stramenopiles (Heterokonts), which include ciliates, brown algae, dinoflagellates and apicomplexa are perhaps very primitive species or at least may have a very primitive common ancestor. Ciliates can reproduce with the E. Coli conjugation method, which, if inherited points to a very old origin, 1.6 to 1.8 billion year old brown algae fossils have been found in the Jixian which also imply an ancient origin for brown algae. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Dinoflagellata Bütschli, 1885 CLASS Dinophyceae (Bütschli, 1885) Pascher, 1914 CLASS Blastodiniophyceae Fensome et al., 1993 CLASS Noctiluciphyceae Fensome et al., 1993 CLASS Syndiniophyceae Loeblich III, 1976 Most dinoflagellates are unicellular forms with two dissimilar flagella. One of these extends towards the posterior, called the longitudinal flagellum, while the other forms a lateral circle, called the transverse flagellum. In many forms these are set into grooves, called the sulcus and cingulum. The transverse flagellum provides most of the force propelling the cell, and often imparts to it a distinctive whirling motion, which is what gives the name dinoflagellate refers to (Greek dinos, whirling). The longitudinal acts mainly as the steering wheel, but providing little propulsive force as well. Dinoflagellates have a complex cell covering called an amphiesma, composed of flattened vesicles, called alveoli. In some forms, these support overlapping cellulose plates that make up a sort of armor called the theca. These come in various shapes and arrangements, depending on the species and sometimes stage of the dinoflagellate. Fibrous extrusomes are also found in many forms. Together with various other structural and genetic details, this organization indicates a close relationship between the dinoflagellates, Apicomplexa, and ciliates, collectively referred to as the alveolates. The chloroplasts in most photosynthetic dinoflagellates are bound by three membranes, suggesting they were probably derived from some ingested alga, and contain chlorophylls a and c and fucoxanthin, as well as various other accessory pigments. However, a few have chloroplasts with different pigmentation and structure, some of which retain a nucleus. This suggests that chloroplasts were incorporated by several endosymbiotic events involving already colored or secondarily colorless forms. The discovery of plastids in Apicomplexa have led some to suggest they were inherited from an ancestor common to the two groups, but none of the more basal lines have them. All the same, the dinoflagellate still consists of the more common organelles such as rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lipid and starch grains, and food vacuoles. Some have even been found with light sensitive organelle such as the eyespot or a larger nucleus containing a prominent nucleolus. Life-cycle Dinoflagellates have a peculiar form of nucleus, called a dinokaryon, in which the chromosomes are attached to the nuclear membrane. These lack histones and remained condensed throughout interphase rather than just during mitosis, which is closed and involves a unique external spindle. This sort of nucleus was once considered to be an intermediate between the nucleoid region of prokaryotes and the true nuclei of eukaryotes, and so were termed mesokaryotic, but now are considered advanced rather than primitive traits. In most dinoflagellates, the nucleus is dinokaryotic throughout the entire life cycle. They are usually haploid, and reproduce primarily through fission, but sexual reproduction also occurs. This takes place by fusion of two individuals to form a zygote, which may remain mobile in typical dinoflagellate fashion or may form a resting cyst, which later undergoes meiosis to produce new haploid cells. However, when the conditions become desperate, usually starvation or no light, their normal routines change dramatically. Two dinoflagellates will fuse together forming a planozygote. Next is a stage not much different from hibernation called hypnozygote when the organism takes in excess fat and oil. At the same time its shape is getting fatter and the shell gets harder. Sometimes even spikes are formed. When the weathers allows it, these dinoflagellates break out of their shell and are in a temporary stage, planomeiocyte, when they quickly reforms their individual thecas and return to the dinoflagellates at the beginning of the process. Ecology and fossils Dinoflagellates sometimes bloom in concentrations of more than a million cells per millilitre. Some species produce neurotoxins, which in such quantities kill fish and accumulate in filter feeders such as shellfish, which in turn may pass them on to people who eat them. This phenomenon is called a red tide, from the color the bloom imparts to the water. Some colorless dinoflagellates may also form toxic blooms, such as Pfiesteria. It should be noted that not all dinoflagellate blooms are dangerous. Bluish flickers visible in ocean water at night often come from blooms of bioluminescent dinoflagellates, which emit short flashes of light when disturbed. Dinoflagellate cysts are found as microfossils from the Triassic period, and form a major part of the organic-walled marine microflora from the middle Jurassic, through the Cretaceous and Cenozoic to the present day. Arpylorus, from the Silurian of North Africa was at one time considered to be a dinoflagellate cyst, but this palynomorph is now considered to be part of the microfauna. It is possible that some of the Paleozoic acritarchs also represent dinoflagellates. Chloroplast features: Chloroplasts: Brown Mitochondria christae are tubular. Nuclear features: Gamete type: flagellated Dinoflagellates are haploid (haplontic). has condensed chromosomes. Mitotic spindle: external. polar structures: none, and centrioles Flagellar features: Number of flagella: 2 Heterokont, isokont, or anisokont: anisokont shaft features: paraxial rod, hairs flagellate stages: gamete, trophic, zoospore trophic: (trophozoites) The activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of protozoan parasites. A protozoan, especially of the class Sporozoa, in the active stage of its life cycle. The feeding stage of a protozoan (as distinct from reproductive or encysted stages). zoospore: A zoospore is a motile asexual spore utilizing a flagellum for locomotion. Also called a swarm spore, these spores are used by some algae and fungi to propagate themselves. Golgi type: dictyosome Food stores: carbohydrate: alpha 1-4 glucan fat=yes extrusomes: tricocysts, nematocysts eyespot type: cytoplasmic stigma, ? Life Forms: unicellular: flagellate, amoeboid, coccoid multicellular: filementous Cell covering: pellicle with plates.
1,005,000,000 YBN	306) Earliest Golden algae (xanthophyte) fossil, "Palaeovaucheria".	(Lakhanda Group) Siberia
1,000,000,000 YBN	154)
1,000,000,000 YBN	223) Ribosomal RNA place fungi phylum "Chytridiomycota" evolving now. Chytridiomycota is a division of the Fungi kingdom and contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek, chytridion, meaning "little pot"): the structure containing unreleased spores. The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi and are mostly saprobic (feed on dead species, degrading chitin and keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in freshwater). There are approximately 1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera, distributed among 5 orders. Both zoospores and gametes of the chytrids are mobile by their flagella, one whiplash per individual. The thalli are coenocytic and usually form no true mycelium (having rhizoids instead). Some species are unicellular. Many chytrids are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Fungi (Linnaeus, 1753) Nees, 1817 - fungi PHYLUM Chytridiomycota CLASS Chytridiomycetes™ (De Bary, 1863) Sparrow, 1958 Some chytrid species are known to kill frogs in large numbers by blocking the frogs' respiratory skins - the infection is referred to as chytridomycosis. Decline in frog populations led to the discovery of chytridomycosis in 1998 in Australia and Panama. Chytrids may also infect plant species; in particular, maize-attacking and alfalfa-attacking species have been described.
1,000,000,000 YBN	324) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates) CLASS Corallochytrea CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001 (DRIPs) CLASS Cristidiscoidea
1,000,000,000 YBN	325) The Choanozoan "Mesomycetozoaea" (DRIPs) evolve. The Mesomycetozoea or DRIP clade are a small group of protists, mostly parasites of fish and other animals. One species, Rhinosporidium seeberi, infects birds and mammals, including humans. They appear in host tissues as enlarged spheres or ovals containing spores. Most were originally classified in various groups of fungi, protozoa, and algae. However, on molecular trees they are are closely related to both animals and fungi. The name DRIP is an acronym for the first protozoa identified as members of the group - Dermocystidium, the Rosette agent, Ichthyophonus, and Psorospermium. Cavalier-Smith later treated them as the class Ichthyosporea, since they were all parasites of fish. Since other new members have been added, Mendoza et al. suggested changing the name to Mesomycetozoea, which refers to their evolutionary position. Note the name Mesomycetozoa (without a second e) is also used to refer to this group, but Mendoza et al. use it as an alternate name for the phylum Choanozoa. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates) CLASS Corallochytrea CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001 (DRIPs) CLASS Cristidiscoidea
1,000,000,000 YBN	585)
985,000,000 YBN	309) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Water molds (Oomycetes OemISETEZ) evolving now. Oomycetes (Water molds), with about 580 species, vary from unicellular, to multicellular highly brached filamentous forms. The filamentous form is called "coenocytic" (grows as a large multinucleate cell that results from multiple nuclear divisions without cell divisions, also called "mycelium" in fungi) Oomycetes grow by closed (or nearly closed) mitosis with pairs of centrioles near the poles . Filamentous forms grow by mitosis, but only the nucleus is duplicated (karyokinesis), no septa (horizontal cell wall) is constructed, making these multinucleate very large single cells. Technically, filamentous oomycetes are 3 celled multicellular organisms because a septa forms between the vegetative filament and the diploid sporangium (and oogonium) cells (and the haploid antheridium multinucleate cells are not free swimming), but many people label oomycetes as single celled organism. But it appears clear that oomycetes would be constructed of many cells if a cell wall was built at mitosis. Sexual forms are diploid and reproduce by conjugation. Water Molds are microscopic organisms that reproduce both sexually and asexually and are composed of mycelia, or a tube-like vegetative body (all of an organism's mycelia are called its thallus). The name "water mould" refers to the fact that they thrive under conditions of high humidity and running surface water. Water molds were originally classified as fungi, but are now known to have developed separately and show a number of differences. Their cell walls are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and lack septa (a wall that divides two spaces) except where reproductive cells are produced, in addition to having gene sequences more closely related to brown algae than fungi. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. The oomycetes include the water molds, white rusts and the downy mildews. Many oomycetes are multinucleate filaments (hyphae) that resemble fungi. These hyphae have no cross walls, but are one long hollow tube and are called "coenocytic". They were once thought to be related to the fungi, but their cell walls are made of cellulose, not chitin as they are in the true fungi. The superficial resemblance of the fungi and the oomycetes is likely a case of convergent evolution. Both groups have a filamentous (hyphal) body form with a high surface area to volume ration which facilitates uptake of nutrients from their surroundings. The oomycetes are saprobic and parasitic forms, including water molds like Saprolegnia and downey mildews like Peronospora. 1. These organisms (and slime molds) resemble fungi but all have flagellated cells which fungi never do. 2. Water molds possess a cell wall but it is made of cellulose, not chitin as in fungi. 3. Water molds produce diploid (2n) zoospores and meiosis produces the gametes. 2. Aquatic water molds parasitize fishes, forming furry growths on their gills, and decompose remains. 3. Terrestrial water molds parasitize insects and plants; a water mold caused the 1840s Irish potato famine. 4. Water molds have a filamentous body but cell walls are composed largely of cellulose. 5. During asexual reproduction, they produce diploid motile spores (2n zoospores) with flagella. 6. Unlike fungi, the adult is diploid; gametes are produced by meiosis. 7. Eggs are produced in enlarged oogonia. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colorless groups CLASS Oomycetes (water moulds) Oomycetes have mitochondria with tubular christae. Water mould motile cells are produced as asexual spores called zoospores, which capitalize on surface water (including precipitation on plant surfaces) for movement. The Zoospores have 2 unequal anterior (apical) flagella. They also produce sexual spores, called oospores, that are translucent double-walled spherical structures used to survive adverse environmental conditions. The water molds are among the most important plant pathogenic (capable of causing disease) organisms that may be facultatively or obligately parasitic. The majority can be divided into three groups, although more exist. * The Phytophthora group is a genus that causes diseases such as dieback, potato blight (caused the potato famine in Ireland), sudden oak death and rhododendron root rot. * The Pythium group is a genus that is more ubiquitous than Phytophythora and individual species have larger host ranges, usually causing less damage. Pythium damping off is a very common problem in greenhouses where the organism kills newly emerged seedlings. Mycoparasitic members of this group (e.g. P. oligandrum) parasitise other oomycetes and fungi and have been employed as biocontrol agents . One Pythium species, Pythium insidiosum is also known to infect mammals. * The third group are the downy mildews, which are easily identifable by the appearance of white "mildew" on leaf surfaces (although this group can be confused with the unrelated powdery mildews). A male nuclei from a multinucleate haploid cell is transfered to into the haploid egg cell; the male gamete is not free moving, only the female gametes are although contained within the oogonium.
965,000,000 YBN	155)
900,000,000 YBN	326) The Choanozoans "Choanoflagellates" and "Acanthoecida" evolve. The choanoflagellates are a group of flagellate protozoa. They are considered to be the closest relatives of the animals, and in particular may be the direct ancestors of sponges. Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of hairlike protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar (choanos in Greek). The flagellum pulls water through the collar, and small food particles are captured by the microvilli and ingested. It also pushes the free-swimming cells along, as in animal sperm, whereas most other flagellates are pulled by their flagella. Most choanoflagellates are sessile, with a stalk opposite the flagellum. A number of species are colonial, usually taking the form of a cluster of cells on a single stalk. Of special note is Proterospongia, which takes the form of a glob of cells, of which the external cells are typical flagellates with collars, but the internal cells are non-motile. The choanocytes (also known as "collared cells") of sponges have the same basic structure as choanoflagellates. Collared cells are occasionally found in a few other animal groups, such as flatworms. These relationships make colonial choanoflagellates a plausible candidate as the ancestors of the animal kingdom. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates and Acanthoecida) ORDER Choanoflagellida™ W.S. Kent, 1880 - (Choanoflagellates) ORDER Acanthoecida CLASS Corallochytrea CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001 (DRIPs) CLASS Cristidiscoidea Also identified in the Phylum Choanozoa are the Ichthyosporea. (It's interesting that the choanoflegellate may be so similar and closely related to a human sperm cell.)
900,000,000 YBN	6281) Protists Rhizaria {rI-ZaR-E-u} (ancestor of all Radiolaria, Foraminifera and Cercozoa). Rhizaria is a heterogeneous assemblage of protists, which includes the majority of filose and reticulose amoebae and most actinopods, plus two parasitic lineages and some flagellates. The term Rhizaria was proposed by Cavalier-Smith (2002), and refers to the root-like filose and reticulose pseudopodia and/or axopodia characterizing the majority of the taxa included in it. The existence of this supergroup is based exclusively on molecular evidence that accumulated since the demonstration of the close relationship between euglyphid amoebae and chlorarachniophytes (Bhattacharya et al. 1995), and their grouping with cercomonad and thaumatomonad flagellates in SSU rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith and Chao 1997). The Rhizaria are also supported by analyses of actin (Keeling 2001, Nikolaev et al. 2004), polyubiquitin (Archibald et al. 2003), and RNA polymerase II (Longet et al. 2003) genes. Rhizaria includes core cercozoans (comprising among others the Euglyphida, Chlorarachniophyta, Phaeodarea, and Desmothoracida), some parasites of plants (Phytomyxea) and animals (Haplosporidia), the Foraminifera, Gromia, and radiolarians (Acantharea + Polycystinea + Taxopodida) (Nikolaev et al. 2004).
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804,000,000 YBN	319) Genetic comparison shows that the Prostist Phylum "Radiolaria" evolves now. Radiolarians are protozoans found in the upper layers of all oceans. Radiolarians, are mostly spherically symmetrical, and known for their complex and beautifully tiny skeletons, called "tests". Tests are usually made of silica. Pseudopodia extend through the perforated skeleton. A chitinous central capsule encloses the nuclei and divides the cytoplasm into two zones. The outer cytoplasm contains many vacuoles that control the organism’s buoyancy. Asexual reproduction is by budding, binary fission, or multiple fission. Generally, the skeleton divides, and each daughter cell regenerates the missing half. In some cases, however, one daughter cell escapes and develops an entirely new shell, the other daughter remaining within the parent skeleton. Radiolaria move by pseudopodia. Most have a radial arrangement of spines. Pseudopods (actinopods) project from an external layer of cytoplasm and are supported by rows of microtubules. Tests of dead foraminiferans and radiolarians form deep layers of ocean floor sediment. Back to the Precambrian, each layer has distinctive foraminiferans which helps date rocks. Over hundreds of millions of years, the CaCO3 shells have contributed to the formation of chalk deposits (i.e. White Cliffs of Dover, limestone of pyramids). Lifecycle Simple asexual fission of radiolarian cells has been observed. Sexual reproduction has not been confirmed but is assumed to occur; possible gametogenesis has been observed in the form of "swarmers" being expelled from swellings in the cell. Swarmers are formed from the central capsule after the ectoplasm has been discarded. The central capsule sinks through the water column to depths hundreds of meters greater than the normal habitat and swells, eventually rupturing and releasing the flagellated cells. Recombination of these cells, which are assumed to be haploid, to produce diploid "adults" has not been observed however and is only inferred to occur. Comparisons of standing crops within the water column and sediment trap samples have ascertained that the average life span of radiolarians is about two weeks, ranging from a few days to a few weeks. All radiolarians secrete strontium sulphate at some point in the life cycle - as the adult shell in Acantharea, and as crystals in "swarmer cells" produced during asexual reproduction in Polycystinea. Large, planktonic forms that produce a glassy, intricate shell. Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopods supported by microtubules, called axopods, which aid in flotation. The nuclei and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. Often it also contains symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, that provide most of the cell's energy. Some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines. The main class of radiolarians are the Polycystinea, which produce siliceous skeletons. These include the majority of fossils. They also include the Acantharea, which produce skeletons of strontium sulfate. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, genetic studies place these two groups close together. They also include the peculiar genus Sticholonche, which lacks an internal skeleton and so is usually considered a heliozoan. Traditionally the radiolarians also include the Phaeodarea, which produce siliceous skeletons but differ from the polycystines in several other respects. However, on molecular trees they branch with the Cercozoa, a group including various flagellate and amoeboid protists. The other radiolarians appear near, but outside, the Cercozoa, so the similarity is due to convergent evolution. The radiolarians and Cercozoa are included within a supergroup called the Rhizaria. German biologist Ernst Haeckel produced exquisite (and perhaps somewhat exaggerated) drawings of radiolaria, helping to popularize these protists among Victorian parlor microscopists alongside foraminifera and diatoms. PHYLUM Radiolaria (Müller 1858 emend.) CLASS Polycystinea CLASS Acantharea (Haeckel, 1881) CLASS Sticholonchea (CLASS Phaeodarea Haeckel, 1879 )? CLASS Polycystinea: The polycystines are a group of radiolarian protists. They include the vast majority of the fossil radiolaria, as their skeletons are abundant in marine sediments, making them one of the most common groups of microfossils. These skeletons are composed of opaline silica. In some it takes the form of relatively simple spicules, but in others it forms more elaborate lattices, such as concentric spheres with radial spines or sequences of conical chambers. Class Acantharea The Acantharea are a small group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their skeletons. These are composed of strontium sulfate crystals, which do not fossilize, and take the form of either ten diametric or twenty radial spines. The central capsule is made up of microfibrils arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spine projects, and there is also a microfibrillar cortex linked to the spines by myonemes. These assist in flotation, together with the vacuoles in the ectoplasm, which often contain zooxanthellae. The axopods are fixed in number. Reproduction takes place by formation of spores, which may be flagellate. These develop into mononucleate amoebae; adults are usually multinucleate. Class Sticholonchea Sticholonche is a peculiar genus of protozoan with a single species, S. zanclea, found in open oceans at depths of 100-500 metres. It is generally considered a heliozoan, placed in its own order, called the Taxopodida. However it has also been classified as an unusual radiolarian, and this has gained support from genetic studies, which place it near the Acantharea. Sticholonche are usually around 200 μm, though this varies considerably, and have a bilaterally symmetric shape, somewhat flattened and widened at the front. The axopods are arranged into distinct rows, six of which lie in a dorsal groove and are rigid, and the rest of which are mobile. These are used primarily for buoyancy, rather than feeding. They also have fourteen groups of prominent spines, and many smaller spicules, although there is no central capsule as in true radiolarians. Cercozoa, originally named by Cavalier-Smith in 1998, is a diverse group of taxa united solely on molecular grounds, but supported by a number of genes (Longet et al., 2003). Amongst notable members of the Cercozoa are amoeboid forms such as Difflugia, which produce agglutinated tests that may be fossilised (the record extends back to the Neoproterozoic - Finlay et al., 2004), and the Chlorarachnea (e.g. Chlorarachnion), marine amoeboid organisms which possess chloroplasts derived from a secondary endosymbiosis with a green alga. Cavalier-Smith, (2003). The nucleus of the endosymbiont in Chlorarachnion, in fact, has not fully degraded as in most secondarily plastid-bearing eukaryotes, and the chloroplast retains a small nucleomorph contained within the surrounding membranes. The Polycystinea (sometimes spelled Polycistinea or Polycystina) are one group of the Radiolaria. These are not just "small shelly fauna," they are tiny shelly fauna made up of single, if rather complex, cells. The shell turns out to be made of amorphous silica -- essentially sand -- without the admixture of organics that characterize similar forms. Polycystinea are exclusively marine but found in great numbers in the oceans. Their fossil record goes back almost a billion years, well into Precambrian time. Like other radiolarians, the cytoplasm of Polycystinea is divided into ectoplasm and endoplasm by a perforated protein capsule -- not the nuclear membrane, but a novel structure unique to this group. The endoplasm forms a central medulla enclosed by this porous, membranous capsule. The nucleus is inside this central region. The ectoplasm is outside the capsule and forms the region known as the cortex (or calymma). The visible remains shown in the image are made up of perforated tests (the "shells"). In life, these are located in the ectoplasm. Polycystinates extend pseudopods supported by a complex microtubular array (axopods) which originate in the endoplasm. The pseudopods pass through pores in the test and extend, covered with a thin layer of cytoplasm, from the surface of the cell. Spines of the test, if any, also pass through the capsule and extend, covered with cytoplasm, from the surface of the cell. The ectoplasm is often vacuolated and frequently contains photosynthetic zooxanthellae. The endoplasm actually contains all of the organelles normally associated with a "normal" heterotrophic eukaryotic cell, including mitochondria, a nucleus, and a cytoskeleton. The ectoplasm is largely filled with digestive vacuoles, symbiotic algae, and the test. From an evolutionary standpoint, the Polycystina appear to be one step towards a whole different type of biological organization based on a 3-compartment cell, rather than the 2-compartment cell of metazoans. In fact, a number of polycystinean species are colonial. It is interesting to speculate on what might have evolved on this model, had circumstances been different.
804,000,000 YBN	321) Ribosomal RNA shows Rhizaria Phylum "Foraminifera" (also known as "Granuloreticulosea") evolve now. Forminifera are catagorized as amoeboid because they have pseudopods. The Foraminifera, or forams for short, are a large group of amoeboid protists with reticulating pseudopods, fine strands that branch and merge to form a dynamic net. They typically produce a shell, or test, which can have either one or multiple chambers, some becoming quite elaborate in structure. About 250 000 species are recognized, both living and fossil. They are usually less than 1 mm in size, but some are much larger, and the largest recorded specimen reached 19 cm. As fossils, foraminifera are extremely useful. Foraminifera are haplodiploid. Most have a kind of shell called a "test", which is composed of calcium carbonate. move by pseudopodia most are marine tests are major components of limestone used to date marine sediments. Foraminifera, especially the calcareous forms, have a fossil record stretching back to the Early Cambrian, and are especially important biostratigraphically. b. Foraminiferans have a multi-chambered CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) shell; thin pseudopods extend through holes. Of the approximately 4000 living species of foraminifera the life cycles of only 20 or so are known. There are a great variety of reproductive, growth and feeding strategies, however the alternation of sexual and asexual generations is common throughout the group and this feature differentiates the foraminifera from other members of the Granuloreticulosea. An asexually produced haploid generation commonly form a large proloculus (initial chamber) and are therefore termed megalospheric. Sexually produced diploid generations tend to produce a smaller proloculus and are therefore termed microspheric. Importantly in terms of the fossil record, many foraminiferal tests are either partially dissolved or partially disintegrate during the reproductive process.The planktonic foraminifera Hastigerina pelagica reproduces by gametogenesis at depth, the spines, septa and apertural region are resorbed leaving a tell-tale test. Globigerinoides sacculiferproduces a sac-like final chamber and additional calcification of later chambers before dissolution of spines occurs, this again produces a distinctive test, which once gametogenesis is complete sinks to the sea bed. Since the meiosis products have to differentiate or mature into gametes, meiosis does not result directly in gametes, these species are haplodipoid (haplodiplontic). Modern forams are primarily marine, although they can survive in brackish conditions. A few species survive in fresh water (e.g. Lake Geneva) and one species even lives in damp rainforrest soil. They are very common in the meiobenthos, and about 40 species are planktonic. The cell is divided into granular endoplasm and transparent ectoplasm. The pseudopodial net may emerge through a single opening or many perforations in the test, and characteristically has small granules streaming in both directions. The pseudopods are used for locomotion, anchoring, and in capturing food, which consists of small organisms such as diatoms or bacteria. A number of forms have unicellular algae as endosymbionts, from diverse lineages such as the green algae, red algae, golden algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates. Some forams are kleptoplastic, retaining chloroplasts from ingested algae to conduct photosynthesis. The foraminiferan life-cycle involves an alternation between haploid and diploid generations, although they are mostly similar in form. The haploid or gamont initially has a single nucleus, and divides to produce numerous gametes, which typically have two flagella. The diploid or schizont is multinucleate, and after meiosis fragments to produce new gamonts. Multiple rounds of asexual reproduction between sexual generations is not uncommon. The form and composition of the test is the primary means by which forams are identified and classified. Most have calcareous tests, composed of calcium carbonate, which generally takes the form of interlocking microscopic crystals, giving it a glassy or hyaline appearance. In other forams the test may be composed of organic material, made from small pieces of sediment cemented together (agglutinated), and in one genus of silica. Openings in the test, including those that allow cytoplasm to flow between chambers, are called apertures. Tests are known as fossils as far back as the Cambrian period, and many marine sediments are composed primarily of them. For instance, the nummulitic limestone that makes up the pyramids of Egypt is composed almost entirely of them. Forams may also make a significant contribution to the overall deposition of calcium carbonate in coral reefs. Much of the Earth's chalk, limestone, and marble is composed largely of foraminiferan tests. Because of their diversity, abundance, and complex morphology, fossil foraminiferal assembleages can give accurate relative dates for rocks and thus are extremely useful in biostratigraphy. Before more modern techniques became available, the oil industry relied heavily on microfossils such as foraminifera to find potential oil deposits. For the same reasons they make good biostratigraphic markers, living foraminiferal assembleages have been used as bioindicators in coastal environments, including as indicators of coral reef health. Fossil foraminifera are also useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography. They can be used to reconstruct past climate by examining their oxygen stable isotope ratios. Geographic patterns seen in the fossil record of planktonic forams are also used to reconstruct paleo ocean current patterns. Genetic studies have identified the naked amoeba Reticulomyxa and the peculiar xenophyophores as foraminiferans without tests. A few other ameoboids produce reticulose pseudopods, and were formerly classified with the forams as the Granuloreticulosa, but this is no longer considered a natural group, and most are now placed among the Cercozoa. Both the Cercozoa and Radiolaria are close relatives of the Foraminifera, together making up the Rhizaria, but the exact position of the forams is still unclear. PHYLUM Foraminifera CLASS Athalamea (Haeckel, 1862) CLASS Xenophyophorea (F.E. Schulze, 1904) CLASS Foraminifera (Lee, 1990) CLASS Foraminifera ORDER Allogromiida The Allogromiida are a small group of foraminiferans, including those that produce organic tests (Lagynacea). Genetic studies have shown that some foraminiferans with agglutinated tests, previously included in the Textulariida or as their own order Astrorhizida, also belong here. Allogromiids produce relatively simple tests, usually with a single chamber, similar to those of other protists such as Gromia. They are found in stressed environments, including both marine and freshwater forms, and are the oldest forams known from the fossil record. ORDER Fusulinida The fusulinids are an extinct group of foraminiferan protozoa. They produce calcareous shells, which are of fine calcite granules packed closely together; this distinguishes them from other calcareous forams, where the test is usually hyaline. Fusulinids are important indicator fossils. ORDER Globigerinida The Globigerinida are a common group of foraminiferans that are found as marine plankton (other groups are primarily benthic). They produce hyaline calcareous tests, and are known as fossils from the Jurassic period onwards. The group has included more than 100 genera and over 400 species, of which about 30 species are extant. One of the most important genera is Globigerina; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with Globigerina ooze (named by Murray and Renard in 1873), dominated by the shells of planktonic forams. ORDER Miliolida The miliolids are a group of foraminiferans, abundant in shallow waters such as estuaries and coastlines, though they also include oceanic forms. They are distinguished by producing porcelaneous tests, composed of calcite needles and organic material; the needles have a high proportion of magnesium and are oriented randomly. The test lacks pores and generally has multiple chambers, which are often arranged in a distinctive fashion called milioline. ORDER Rotaliida The Rotaliida are a large and abundant group of foraminiferans. They are primarily oceanic benthos, although some are common in shallower waters such as estuaries. They also include many important fossils, such as nummulites. Rotaliids produce hyaline tests, in which the microscopic crystals may be oriented either radially (as in other forams) or obliquely. ORDER Textulariida The Textulariida are a group of common foraminiferans that produce agglutinated shells, composed of foreign particles in an organic or calcareous cement. Previously they were taken to include all such species, but genetic studies have shown that they are not all closely related, and several superfamilies have been moved to the order Allogromiida. The remaining forms are sometimes divided into three orders: the Trochamminida and Lituolida (organic cement) and the Textulariida sensu stricto (calcareous cement). All three are known as fossils from the Cambrian onwards. CLASS Xenophyophorea Xenophyophores are marine protozoans, giant single-celled organisms found throughout the world's oceans, but in their greatest numbers on the abyssal plains of the deep ocean. They were first described as sponges in 1889, then as testate amoeboids, and later as their own phylum of Protista. A recent genetic study suggested that the xenophyophores are a specialized group of Foraminifera. There are approximately 42 recognized species in 13 genera and 2 orders; one of which, Syringammina fragillissima, is among the largest known protozoans at a maximum 20 centimetres in diameter. Abundant but poorly understood, xenophyophores are delicate organisms with a variable appearance; some may resemble flattened discs, angular four-sided shapes (tetrahedra), or like frilly or spherical sponges. Local environmental conditions-such as current direction and speed-may play a part in influencing these forms. Xenophyophores are essentially lumps of viscous fluid called cytoplasm containing numerous nuclei distributed evenly throughout. Everything is contained in a ramose system of tubes called a granellare, itself composed of an organic cement-like substance. As benthic deposit feeders, xenophyophores tirelessly root through the muddy sediments on the sea floor. They excrete a slimy substance whilst feeding; in locations with a dense population of xenophyophores, such as at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, this slime may cover large areas. Local population densities may be as high as 2,000 individuals per 100 square metres, making them dominant organisms in some areas. These giant protozoans seem to feed in a manner similar to amoebas, enveloping food items with a foot-like structure called a pseudopodium. Most are epifaunal (living atop the seabed), but one species (Occultammina profunda), is known to be infaunal; it buries itself up to 6 cm deep into the sediment. Their glue-like secretions cause silt and strings of their own fecal matter, called stercomes, to build up into masses (called stercomares) on their exteriors. In this way, the organisms form structures which project from the sea floor; this characteristic also explains their name, which may be translated from the Greek to mean "bearer of foreign bodies". A protective, shell-like test is thereby agglutinated around the granellare, which is composed of scavenged minerals and the microscopic skeletal remains of other organisms, such as sponges, radiolarians, and other foraminiferans. Xenophyophores may be an important part of the benthic ecosystem by virtue of their constant bioturbation of the sediments, providing a habitat for other organisms such as isopods. Research has shown that areas dominated by xenophyophores have 3-4 times the number of benthic crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs than equivalent areas which lack xenophyophores. The xenophyophores themselves also play commensal host to a number of organisms-such as isopods (e.g., genus Hebefustis), sipunculan and polychaete worms, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods-some of which may take up semi-permanent residence within a xenophyophore's test. Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) also appear to have some sort of relationship with xenophyophores, as they are consistently found directly underneath or on top of the protozoans. Xenophyophores are difficult to study due to their extreme fragility. Specimens are invariably damaged during sampling, rendering them useless for captive study or cell culture. For this reason, very little is known of their life history. As they occur in all the world's oceans and in great numbers, xenophyophores could be indispensable agents in the process of sediment deposition and in maintaining biological diversity in benthic ecosystems. Xenophyophores are large marine Amoebae containing barite (BaSO4) crystals. CLASS Athalamea Granuloreticulosea, lacking a test or shell, though some forms might be covered by a thin lorica. Pseudopods could arise anywhere over the surface of the body, and could be branched to a greater or lesser extent in different representa-tives of the group, with or without anastomosing connections in the pseudopodial network. Organisms that have not been examined by modern techniques, nor have been seen in recent years, to check the fact that they do have granular reticulopodial bidirectional streaming, have been removed from this class and placed with the amoebae of uncertain affinities. One genus remains: Reticulomyxa.
780,000,000 YBN	79) Placozoans look like amoebas but are multicellular. There is only one known species, "Tricoplax adhaerens", and one other potential species "Tricoplax reptans" in the entire Placozoa phylum. Putative eggs have been observed, but they degrade at the 32-64 cell stage. Neither embryonic development nor sperm have been observed, however Trichoplax genomes show evidence of sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction by binary fission is the primary mode of reproduction observed in the lab. The haploid number of chromosomes is six. It has the smallest amount of DNA yet measured for any animal with only 50 megabases (80 femtograms per cell). A trichoplax genome project is currently underway. Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene (Trox-2). Trichoplax lacks any kind of symmetry, organs, nerve cells, or muscle cells. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Radiata (Linnaeus, 1758) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - radiates INFRAKINGDOM Placozoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Placozoa™ Grell, 1971 (Is this contractile cell, an ancestor of all muscle cells?) (Clearly the secret of remote neuron writing has contributed to keeping the public knowledge about the evolution of the nervous and muscular system at a 1400s- extremely reduced- level.)
767,000,000 YBN	312) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Phylum "Ciliophora" (Ciliates) evolving now. The ciliates are one of the most important groups of protists, common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, and soils, with many ecto- (lives on host) and endosymbiotic (lives in host) members, as well as some obligate (depends on host for survival) and opportunistic parasites (does not depend on host for survival). Ciliates tend to be large protists, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure. The name ciliate comes from the presence of hair-like organelles called cilia, which are identical in structure to flagella but typically shorter and present in much larger numbers. Cilia occur in all members of the group, although the peculiar suctoria only have them for part of the life-cycle, and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation. Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different sorts of nuclei: a small, diploid micronucleus (reproduction), and a large, polyploid macronucleus (general cell regulation). The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. The high degree of polyploidi allows the cell to sustain an appropriate level of transcription. Division of the macronucleus does not occur by a mitotic process but segregation of the chromosomes is by a different process, whose mechanism is unknown. This process is not perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging (has so many mutations that it does not function properly). Periodically the macronuclei is (must be?) regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during sexual reproduction, which is not usually through syngamy but through conjugation. Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some of the haploid daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micro- and macronuclei. With a few exceptions, there is a distinct cytostome or mouth where ingestion takes place. Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down via lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. These often have a distinctive star-shape, with each point being a collecting tube. Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms (heterotrophic), such as bacteria and algae, and detritus swept into the mouth by modified oral cilia. These usually include a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from polykinetids, groups of many cilia together with associated structures. This varies considerably, however. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. This includes the suctoria, which feed through several specialized tentacles. Ciliates and Amoeboids have in common: Food is digested in food vacuoles. Excess water is expelled by contractile vacuoles. A few ciliates (for example tintinnids), secrete external skeletons, or loricae, which have been found in the fossil record as early as the Ordovician (500 million years ago). Cilia is used for locomotion. Mitochondria in ciliates have tubular cristae. CIliates have two distinct types of nuclei, a hyperpolyploid macronucleus and a diploid micronucleus. Ciliates reproduce by asexual reproduction using transverse binary fission, and by sexual reproduction using conjugation: a pair of ciliates fuse and exchange micronuclei through a cytoplasmic conenction at a point of joining. A few ciliates (for example Laboea, and Stronbidium) contain photosynthetically functional chloroplasts derived from injested algae. The chloroplasts lie free in the cytoplasm, beneath the pellicle, where they actively contribute to the ciliate's carbon budget. Fossil ciliates from the Doushantuo Formation, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran Period have been identified. These included two types of tintinnids and a possible ancestral suctorian. Biomarkers for ciliates have been found dating back to 850 million years ago. (Maintaining reproduction by conjugation, if directly descended from bacteria like E. Coli, as opposed to reinvented, implies a very ancient origin for ciliates. Perhaps there is a connectoin between ciliates and bacteria like E. Coli, conjugation, and the origin of the nucleus.) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Alveolata Ciliates evolving now. The ciliates are one of the most important groups of protists, common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, and soils, with many ecto- (lives on host) and endosymbiotic (lives in host) members, as well as some obligate (depends on host for survival) and opportunistic parasites (does not depend on host for survival). Ciliates tend to be large protists, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure. The name ciliate comes from the presence of hair-like organelles called cilia, which are identical in structure to flagella but typically shorter and present in much larger numbers. Cilia occur in all members of the group, although the peculiar suctoria only have them for part of the life-cycle, and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation. Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different sorts of nuclei: a small, diploid micronucleus (reproduction), and a large, polyploid macronucleus (general cell regulation). The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. The high degree of polyploidi allows the cell to sustain an appropriate level of transcription. Division of the macronucleus does not occur by a mitotic process but segregation of the chromosomes is by a different process, whose mechanism is unknown. This process is not perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging (has so many mutations that it does not function properly). Periodically the macronuclei is (must be?) regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during sexual reproduction, which is not usually through syngamy but through conjugation. Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some of the haploid daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micro- and macronuclei. With a few exceptions, there is a distinct cytostome or mouth where ingestion takes place. Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down via lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. These often have a distinctive star-shape, with each point being a collecting tube. Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms (heterotrophic), such as bacteria and algae, and detritus swept into the mouth by modified oral cilia. These usually include a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from polykinetids, groups of many cilia together with associated structures. This varies considerably, however. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. This includes the suctoria, which feed through several specialized tentacles. Ciliates and Amoeboids have in common: Food is digested in food vacuoles. Excess water is expelled by contractile vacuoles. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein, 1901) Copeland, 1956 - ciliates CLASS Karyorelictea CLASS Heterotrichea CLASS Spirotrichea CLASS Litostomatea CLASS Phyllopharyngea CLASS Nassophorea CLASS Colpodea {possibly in phylum percolozoa} CLASS Prostomatea CLASS Oligohymenophorea CLASS Plagiopylea In some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the spirotrichs where they generally form bristles called cirri. More often body cilia are arranged in mono- and dikinetids, which respectively include one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies), each of which may support a cilium. These are arranged into rows called kineties, which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell. The body and oral kinetids make up the infraciliature, an organization unique to the ciliates and important in their classification, and include various fibrils and microtubules involved in coordinating the cilia. The infraciliature is one of the main component of the cell cortex. Another are the alveoli, small vesicles under the cell membrane that are packed against it to form a pellicle maintaining the cell's shape, which varies from flexible and contractile to rigid. Numerous mitochondria and extrusomes are also generally present. The presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close relationship between the ciliates, Apicomplexa, and dinoflagellates. These superficially dissimilar groups make up the alveolates. Ciliates move by coordinated strokes of hundreds of cilia projecting through holes in a semirigid pellicle. They discharge long, barbed trichocysts for defense and for capturing prey; toxicysts release a poison. Most are holozoic and ingest food through a gullet and eliminate wastes through an anal pore. During asexual reproduction, ciliates divide by transverse binary fission. Ciliates possess two types of nuclei-a large macronucleus and one or more small micronuclei. a. The macronucleus controls the normal metabolism of the cell. b. The micronucleus are involved in sexual reproduction. 1) The macronucleus disintegrates and the micronucleus undergoes meiosis. 2) Two ciliates then exchange a haploid micronucleus. 3) The micronuclei give rise to a new macronucleus containing only housekeeping genes. Ciliates are diverse. a. Members of the genus Paramecium are complex. (Fig. 30.13b) b. The barrel-shaped didinia expand to consume paramecia much larger than themselves. c. Suctoria rest on a stalk and paralyze victims, sucking them dry. d. Stentor resembles a giant blue vase with stripes. (Fig. 30.13a) Could the 2 nuclei in ciliates be the result of an earlier fusion (or engulfing) of 2 prokaryotes?
767,000,000 YBN	314) Genetic comparison shows that the Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa" {a-Pi-KoM-PleK-Su} (Malaria, Toxoplasmosis) evolve. The ciliophora, apicomplexa and dinoflagelatta are under the title alveolata because they have an alveolar membran system, which contains flattened membrane-bound sacs (alveoli) lying beneath the outer cell membrane. The Apicomplexa are a large group of protozoa, characterized by the presence of an apical complex at some point in their life-cycle. They are exclusively parasitic, and completely lack flagella or pseudopods except for certain gamete stages. Diseases caused by Apicomplexa include: * Babesiosis (Babesia) * Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium) * Malaria (Plasmodium) * Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) Most members have a complex life-cycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction. Typically, a host is infected by ingesting cysts, which divide to produce sporozoites that enter its cells. Eventually, the cells burst, releasing merozoites which infect new cells. This may occur several times, until gamonts are produced, forming gametes that fuse to create new cysts. There are many variations on this basic pattern, however, and many Apicomplexa have more than one host. (Show anatomy and life cycle) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Apicomplexa CLASS Conoidasida Levine, 1988 CLASS Aconoidasida Mehlhorn, Peters & Haberkorn, 1980 CLASS Metchnikovellea Weiser, 1977 CLASS Blastocystea Cavalier-Smith, 1998
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750,000,000 YBN	225) Closeable mouth evolves in metazoans.
750,000,000 YBN	414) Radiata Ctenophores {TeNOFORZ} evolve (comb jellies). Unlike the Porifera, in Ctenophores and all later metazoans, cells group as tissues. Ctenophora are the earliest still living phylum to have nerve and muscle cells. Ctenophora were initially wrongly categorized as jellyfish. Like jellyfish, the bodies of Ctenophora are built from only two layers of tissue, their main body cavity is also the digestive chamber, and they have a simple nerve net. Hair-like cilia propel the ctenophora instead of the pulsating muscles which propel jellyfish. While the Porifera (sponges) have no obvious symmetry, Cnidarians have radial symmetry, and Ctenophores have biradial symmetry. Ctenophores are hermaphroditic. Ovaries and testies differentiate from the endoderm lining the eight meridional canals. The gametes are released through temporary gonopores, and fertilization is external. (Get more phylogenetic timelines to verify time.) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Radiata (Linnaeus, 1758) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - radiates INFRAKINGDOM Coelenterata Leuckart, 1847 PHYLUM Ctenophora Eschscholtz, 1829 - comb jellies CLASS Tentaculata CLASS Nuda
750,000,000 YBN	458) Genetic comparison shows Fungi division "Glomeromycota" (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) evolving now.
713,000,000 YBN	6320) Earliest chemical biomarker evidence of animals (metazoans), sterans associated with demosponges.	(Huqf Supergroup) South Oman Salt Basin, Oman
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700,000,000 YBN	226) Genetic comparison shows the second largest group of Fungi, the phylum "Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu} (most mushrooms, rusts, club fungi) evolving now. The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. Essentially the sibling group of the Ascomycota, it contains some 30,000 species (37% of the described fungi)
700,000,000 YBN	227) Genetic comparison shows the largest Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} (yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, morels, sac fungi) evolving now. 47,000 described species.
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630,000,000 YBN	6311) Earliest extant bilaterian: Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and nemertodermatida). The phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and nemertodermatida) is the oldest surviving bilaterian. This begins the Subkingdom "Bilateria". Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track, anus and coelom. Flatworms have no lungs or gills and breathe through their skin. Flatworms also have no circulating blood and so their branched gut presumably transports nutrients to all parts of the body. (Describe nerve, muscle. Sound, pain, light, smell, touch detection/recognition?) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians PHYLUM "Acoelomorpha" - acoelomorphs ORDER Acoela - acoels ORDER Nemertodermatida - nemertodermatids
625,000,000 YBN	6328) Protists "Cercozoa".
610,000,000 YBN	95) Fluid filled cavity, coelom (SEleM) evolves in an early bilaterians. In most bilaterally symmetrical invertebrates an internal cavity exists between the body wall and the gut wall. Having a space between body wall and gut wall has several advantages. The body wall and gut wall can act independently, the fluid in the cavity can act as a deformable skeleton, and other organ systems can be developed in the fluid-filled space. Three kinds of body cavity have been distinguished in the bilateral metazoans: pseudocoel, coelom, and haemocoel. A pseudocoel, or flase coelem, is an internal space that is not bounded by a cellular epithelium (tissue) and is not associated with a circulatory system. A coelom is a fluid-filled space that developed within mesoderm and lined by an epithelium. The haemocoel is the body cavity in between organs in which the hemolymph circulates through. In most vertebrates the oxygen is supplied to different organs of the body through capillaries in a closed circulatory system. In many invertebrates, the oxygen is supplied directly to the organs. That is, the hemolymph circulates through the haemocoel and bathes the organs directly to supply them with oxygen. (Perhaps the space in between body and gut walls separates potentially harm-food food from mixing with and damaging important mechanical, chemical and other parts of the metazoan.)
600,000,000 YBN	91)	Sonora, Mexico|Adelaide, Australia| Lesser Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhsta
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580,000,000 YBN	131)	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
580,000,000 YBN	165) Earliest bilaterian fossil, Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length. First fossil of organism with bilateral symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut and anus.	(Doushantuo Formation) China
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580,000,000 YBN	6282) Fossil ciliates from the Doushantuo Formation, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran Period have been identified. These included two types of tintinnids and a possible ancestral suctorian. Biomarkers for ciliates have been found dating back to 850 million years ago.	(Doushantuo Formation) Guizhou, South China
580,000,000 YBN	6293) Earliest cnidarian fossil. These are fossil cnidarian embryos and larvae from Doushantuo Formation in China. Cnidarians which possessed hard skeletons, in particular the corals, have left a significant fossil record of their existence.	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
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575,000,000 YBN	139) Earliest sea pen fossil ("Charnia"). Sea pens (Class Pennatulacea) are Cnidarnian Anthozoans. Some people have suggested that a fossil from China shows that the fronds are ciliated which implies that these fossil organisms are possibly more closely related to Ctenophores than sea pens.	(Drook Formation) Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland
570,000,000 YBN	89) Protostome Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Trochozoa evolve. Ancestor of all Bryozoans, Nemerteans, Phoronids, Brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Molluscs and Annelids.
570,000,000 YBN	94) Fossil animal embryo. Fossil animal embryo.	(Doushantuo formation) China
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570,000,000 YBN	327) Protostome Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Platyzoa {PlaT-i-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of rotifers, gastrotrichs and Platyhelminthes (flatworms). Thomas Cavalier-SMith proposed the new infrakingdom in 1998 for "ciliated non-segmented acoelomates or pseudocoelomates lacking vascular system; gut (when present) straight, with or without anus".
570,000,000 YBN	345) Deuterostome Coelomorpha Phylum Hemichordonia evolves (pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS}, acorn worms). Adult Pterobrachs are sessile, fastening to solid structures, but the younger (or larval) form is free swimming, and is thought to have retained this form before evolving into tunicates and then the first fish. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et al., 2001 INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora (Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms PHYLUM Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. - hemichordates
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565,000,000 YBN	6294) Earliest cnidarian (anthozoa) coral fossil. These are fossil cnidarian coral (tabulata) from Doushantuo Formation in China. The tabulata are an extinct Paleozoic order of corals of the subclass Zoantharia characterized by an exclusively colonial mode of growth and by secretion of a calcareous exoskeleton of slender tubes.	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
560,000,000 YBN	117) Earliest chordate fossil.	(Flinders Ranges, 490 km north of Adelaide) Australia
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560,000,000 YBN	6290) Ealiest extant fish, Lancelets {laNSleTS} (also called amphioxus {aMFEoKSeS}). Deuterostome Chordata Subphylum Cephalochordata (lancelets {laNSleTS}) evolve. Lancelets are the most primitive chordates to have a liver and a kidney, which are not found in hemichordates or tunicates. The Lancelet is a protochordate and not a vertebrate. The lancelet has only a nerve tube on the notochord and no brain other than a small swelling at the front end of the nerve tube. It also has an eye-spot. There are gill slits at the sides used for filter feeding and not primarily for breathing which would mean that gills for breathing evolve later. The Lancelet is not like a worm in not being cylindrical, and swims like a fish using its muscles with side-to-side undulations. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck, 1816 - tunicates SUBPHYLUM Cephalochordata - lancelets SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates (Get image of tree, get more genetic evidence of chronology.) (Describe anatomy, various systems {sense organs, diet}. Describe what the thought and eye images might look like, and what the thought-sounds might sound like on these species.) (Is there not a more primative extinct fish? State what were the pre-fish forms, perhaps from Tunicate.)
560,000,000 YBN	6292) Oldest mollusc fossil.
560,000,000 YBN	6318) Earliest evidence of animals eating other animals (predation). Earliest fossil animal shell (or skeleton). The evolution of chewing and then of animal predation starts an "arms race" that rapidly transforms ecosystems around the Earth. So in this sense hard chitin teeth evolve first and then the shell evolves as an advantage to survival. The earliest animal shells are made by tiny organisms with simple tubelike skeletons, such as Cloudina and Sinotubulites. Cloudina are worms that ... The shell of Cloudina is made of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Predatory bore holes have been found in Cloudina shells. This is the oldest evidence of predation known. The earliest animal shells are agglutinated tubes built of foreign objects by the animals inhabiting them, an example being the worm Onuphionella, with its collection of mica flakes lining its shelter. The appearance of the small shelly fossils and drrp burrows are correlated with a decline in stromatolites. Before the appearance of small invertebrate animals, nothing fed on cyanobacterial mats. Some small shelly fossils must be primitive molluscs that graze on stromatolites. Stromatolites survive today only in environments that are hostile to grazing invertebrates. Tehse include lagoons too salty for grazing snails like Shark Bay, Australia, and shallow channels in the Bahamas where currents are too strong for clinging invertebrates. The soft-bodied multicellular (but non-skeletonized) Ediacaran fauna appear starting around 600 mybn and may represent the next logical step up from single-celled life. The next stage is the appearance of small mineralized shells starting around 545 million years ago. These small shells are referred to as "small shelly fossils" and were first reported by a team of Soviet scientists headed by Alexi Rozanov of the Paleontological Institute in Moscow. Rozanov reports in 1966 that the oldest limestones of Cambrian age contain many small and unfamiliar skeletons, few larger than 1 cm (1/2 inch) long. These fossils are referred to as "small shelly fossils". At the time these are the earliest known fossils of hard skeletons. Their discovery rewrites the story of the earliest Cambrian and sheds light on the Cambrian radiation. Most of the small shelly fossils are made of calcium phosphate, the same mineral that makes up the bones of vertebrates, but today, most marine invertebrate shells are made of calcium carbonate (the minerals calcite and aragonite). To some scientists this suggests that the later appearance of large calcified trilobites and other fossils, represents a time when atmospheric oxygen is abundant enough to allow calcite skeletons to be secreted. There is evidence that seawater chemistry favored aragonite precipitation during the late Precambrian and favored calcite precipitation during the Tommotian, and that carbonate skeletal mineralogy is determined by the chemistry of seawater at the time carbonate skeletons first evolve in a clade. Prokaryotic cyanobacteria also develop the ability to secrete carbonate skeletons around the same time. Eventually, the expansion of infaunal life destroys the widespread and vast cyanobacterial mats in shallow regions of the sea. (It's interesting to wonder if the predators ate the cyanobacteria that made the mats. In addition, if the extinction of the soft-bodied Ediacarin organisms was due in some part to the invention of a hard shell and organisms with improved predatory anatomies. Soft bodied jelly fish still thrive, so clearly, species can survive predation without having hard shell armor. In the case of jellyfish, probably cnidae make them uneatable.)	(Ara Formation) Oman|Lijiagou, Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province
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550,000,000 YBN	108) Cyclomedusa Ediacaran fossil, thought to be a jellyfish.
550,000,000 YBN	109) Kimbrella Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil. Kimbrella is thought to be a bilateral mollusc with a non-mineralized univalved shell.
550,000,000 YBN	110) Eorporpita Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	111) (Helminth) Worm tracks Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	112) Dickinsonia Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	113) Pteridinium Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	114) Spriggina Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	115) Charnia, Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	116) Nemiana, Ediacaran (Vendian) fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	118) Tribrachidium, Ediacaran fossil.
550,000,000 YBN	119) Arkarua, Ediacaran fossil.
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550,000,000 YBN	328) Ecdysozoa Superphylum "Ashelminthes" evolves. This includes the 5 Phyla: Ki norhyncha (kinorhynchs), Loricifera (loriciferans), Nematoda (round worms), Nematomorpha (horsehair worms), Priapulida (priapulids). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 - protostomes INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Aschelminthes PHYLUM Priapulida Théel, 1906 - priapulids PHYLUM Kinorhyncha Reinhard, 1887 - kinorhynchs PHYLUM Loricifera Kristensen, 1983 - loriciferans PHYLUM Nematoda (Rudolphi, 1808) Lankester, 1877 - round worms PHYLUM Nematomorpha Vejdovsky, 1886 - horsehair worms
550,000,000 YBN	329) Platyzoa Rotifers. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 - protostomes INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUPERPHYLUM Gnathifera - gnathiferans PHYLUM Gnathostomulida (Ax, 1956) Riedl, 1969 - gnathostomulids PHYLUM Cycliophora Funch & Kristensen, 1995 - cycliophorans PHYLUM Micrognathozoa (Kristensen & Funch, 2000) PHYLUM Rotifera Cuvier, 1798 - rotifers PHYLUM Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771 - acanthocephalans
547,000,000 YBN	333) The Lophotrochozoa Phyla Phoronida (phoronids) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids) PHYLUM Brachiopoda (brachiopods)
547,000,000 YBN	334) The Lophotrochozoa Trochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda (brachiopods) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids) PHYLUM Brachiopoda (brachiopods)
547,000,000 YBN	335) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Entoprocta (entoprocts) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) PHYLUM Entoprocta (Nitsche, 1869) - entoprocts
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543,000,000 YBN	53) End of the Precambrian and start of the Paleozoic Supereon. End of the Proterozoic and start of the Cambrian Eon.
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543,000,000 YBN	120) Start Cambrian period (543-490 mybn).
543,000,000 YBN	336) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Bryozoa (Bryozoans or moss animals) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) PHYLUM Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831 - bryozoans
542,000,000 YBN	6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or "Cambrian explosion"), the rapid diversification of multicellular animals between 542 and 530 million years ago that results in the appearance of many of the major phyla (between 20 and 35) of animals. An increase of animals with shells. It was once thought that the Cambrian rocks contained the first and oldest fossil animals, but these are now to be found in the earlier Ediacaran (or Vendian) strata. Ediacaran animals are soft-bodied and so are infrequently preserved. When animals begin to develop hard parts, their probability of preservation greatly improves. The first animals to develop hard parts are small shelly fossils, like sponge spicules, gastropods, and others with uncertain affinity. Small shelly fossils can be found back into the Neoproterozoic. Two fossil locations preserve this period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in British Columbia Canada, and the Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of China. The Burgess Shale fossils were discovered in 1909 by Charles D. Wolcott (CE 1850-1927), and are shiny black impressions on the shale bedding planes. Many are the remains of animals that lacked hard parts. Altogether there are four major groups of arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans, and the groups that include scorpions and insects), in addition to sponges, onycophorans, crinoids, mollusks, three phyla of worms, corals, chordates, and many species that cannot be placed in any known phylum. The Chengjiang Fauna resemble that of the Burgess Shale, but the Chengjiang fossils are older and better preserved. The fossils include many soft-bodied animals that are not usually not preserved. For example jellyfish show the detailed structure of tentacles, radial canals, and muscles, and on soft-bodies worms, eyes, segmentation, digestive organs, and patterns on the outer skin can be recognized. The Chengjiang fossils include the earliest fossil of a fish. One theory is that the Cambrian radiation is triggered by predation, since the oldest traces of feeding within the mud occur around this time in addition to the various ways to protect the body by secretion of a mineral skeleton or building tubes by collected mineral grains that are developed by animals around this time.
541,000,000 YBN	132) Archaeocyatha (early sponges) evolve.
540,000,000 YBN	104) The Platyzoa Phylum Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUPERPHYLUM Gnathifera - gnathiferans PHYLUM Gastrotricha Metschnikoff, 1864 - gastrotrichs PHYLUM Platyhelminthes Gegenbaur, 1859 - flatworms
540,000,000 YBN	133) Earliest trilobite fossil. Trilobites are numerous extinct marine arthropods of the Paleozoic Era. Trilobites have a segmented body divided by grooves into three vertical lobes and are found as fossils throughout the world. The largest known trilobite, Isotelus rex, reached 72 centimeters in length.
540,000,000 YBN	6287) The Platyzoa Phylum Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUPERPHYLUM Gnathifera - gnathiferans PHYLUM Gastrotricha Metschnikoff, 1864 - gastrotrichs PHYLUM Platyhelminthes Gegenbaur, 1859 - flatworms
539,000,000 YBN	461) The first circulatory system (blood cells actively moved by muscle contraction) evolves in bilaterians. Nemerteans, cylindrical worms evolved from an earlier ancestor, have a network of blood channels in the mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue between organs) but have no heart or pumping vessel. This bilaterian, a coelomate (the earliest of which are the molluscs), like some surviving coelomates, has a series of channels or blood spaces outside the coelom tissue, that form a circulatory system, often with muscle cell contractible walls connected to the larger vessels that act as pumps to move the blood cells through the channels. (verify muscle cells)
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537,000,000 YBN	341)
537,000,000 YBN	344)
533,000,000 YBN	342)
530,000,000 YBN	338)
530,000,000 YBN	339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora (onychophorans) evolves. Onychophorans, know as "velvet worms", are the living transistional form between worms and arthropods. Although they have segmented worm-like bodies, they also have jointed appenages, antennae, and shed their cuticle like arthropods do. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods
530,000,000 YBN	340) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada (tardigrades) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods
530,000,000 YBN	343) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) evolve. Annelids are various worms or wormlike animals, characterized by an elongated, cylindrical, segmented body and including the earthworm and leech. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms
530,000,000 YBN	350)
530,000,000 YBN	351) In the Subphylum Vertebrata jawless fish (agnatha) evolve. Some extinct jawless fish, that lived in the Devonian 'Age of Fish', such as ostracoderms, had hard, bony armor plating. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates CLASS Agnatha INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates
530,000,000 YBN	386) Earliest vertebrate and fish fossil. Haikouichthys ercaicunensis: About 25 mm in length.	(Chengjiang) Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
525,000,000 YBN	6329) Earliest hemichordate fossil: Pterobranch "graptolite".	(Chengjiang Konservat-Lagerstätte) Yunnan Province, China
520,000,000 YBN	148)
SCIENCE
520,000,000 YBN	6296) Earliest worm fossil. The fossil is a member of the phylum Chaetognatha (also called arrow worm), with only about 100 living species, is found in oceans throughout the world and plays an important role in the food web as primary predators	(Maotianshan Shale ) near Haikou, Kunming, China
520,000,000 YBN	6321) Earliest Chaetognath (arrow worm) fossil.	Lower (Cambrian Maotianshan Shale) near Haikou, Kunming, South China
507,000,000 YBN	140)
507,000,000 YBN	142)
507,000,000 YBN	143) Xenusion (onychophoran, also described as lobopod) fossil, from early Cambrian sandstones of eastern Europe.
507,000,000 YBN	145)
507,000,000 YBN	146)
507,000,000 YBN	147)
507,000,000 YBN	149) Marrella (Arthropod) fossils.	Burgess Shale
505,000,000 YBN	74)
505,000,000 YBN	6291)	(Burgess Shale) Mount Wapta, British Columbia
500,000,000 YBN	230)
490,000,000 YBN	121) Start Ordovician (490-443 mybn), end Cambrian period (543-490 mybn).
488,000,000 YBN	6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN} radiation. During the Ordovician (488-444 million years ago), the number of genera will quadruple.
475,000,000 YBN	233)
475,000,000 YBN	244)
475,000,000 YBN	352) Subphylum Vertebrata jawless fish lampreys and hagfish lines separate. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates CLASS Agnatha INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates
475,000,000 YBN	398)	Caradoc, Libya
470,000,000 YBN	234)
460,000,000 YBN	84) Earliest fungi fossil. Fossilized fungal hyphae and spores strongly resemble modern arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomales, Zygomycetes). The oldest fossil fungi so far known are probably chytrid-like forms from the Ediacarian (also called Vendian) Period (630-542 my), found in north Russia.	Wisconsin, USA
460,000,000 YBN	235)
460,000,000 YBN	353)	Oceans
450,000,000 YBN	158)
443,000,000 YBN	122) Start Silurian period (443-417), end Ordovician period (490-443 mybn).
440,000,000 YBN	360) Ray-finned fishes (Jawed, Class Osteichthyes, Subclass Actinopterygii) evolve. Most of the ray-finned fish are known as teleosts. They exist in both salt and freshwater. The name ray is because their fins have a skeleton similar to a handheld fan. The teleost fish are a very successful evolutionary line, with about 23,500 species, 30 times the number of shark species. Fish with a swim bladder use the bladder to change their depth, to sink, the fish absorbs some molecules of gas from its swim bladder into the blood which reduces the volume of the bladder, to rise, the fish does the reverse, releasing molecules of gas from the blood into the swim bladder increasing the volume of the bladder. Some teleost fish can gulp air from the surface, but still use their gills to extract oxygen from the oxygenated gill water. However, the lung does not evolve from gills but from the swim bladder. The swim bladder appears to have evolved from a primitive lung, and some surviving teleosts, for example bowfins, gars and bichirs (BiCRZ), still use the swim bladder for breathing. The Anabas and mudskipper are two teleost fish that can walk over land. The mudskipper can crawl on land using its pectoral (arm) fin muscles which can support its weight, and eats insects and spiders. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri	Ocean and fresh water
440,000,000 YBN	6172)	Ocean (presumably)
439,000,000 YBN	90)
428,000,000 YBN	401) Oldest fossil of vascular land plants, Cooksonia pertoni, from England, UK. They have been found in an area stretching from Siberia to the Eastern USA, and in Brazil. They are found mostly in the area of Euramerica, and most of the type specimens are from Britain. Cooksonia were small, a few centimetres tall, and had a simple structure: They didn't have leaves, flowers, or seeds. They had a simple stalk, that branched a few times. Each branch ended in a sporangium, a rounded structure that contained the spores. No specimen has been found attached to roots. Either it connected to the ground with very fine root hairs, the fossils are of fragments, or something entirely unanticipated. Some specimens have a dark stripe in the centre of their stalks which is interpreted as being the remains of water carrying tissue. Not all specimens have this stripe, either some Cooksonia lacked vasular tissue, or it was destroyed in the fossilization process. The relationships between the known species of Cooksonia and modern plants remain unclear. They appear to represent plants that are near to the branching between Rhyniophyta and to the club mosses. It is considered likely that Cooksonia is not a clade but rather represents an evolutionary grade. Five species of Cooksonia have been clearly identified. C. pertoni, C. hemisphaerica, C. cambrensis, C. caledonica and C. paranensis. They are distiguished primarily by the shape of the sporangia. The first Cooksonia were discovered by W.H. Lang in 1937 and named in honour of Isabel Cookson, with whom he had collaborated. Cooksonia branches dichotomously (from 1 into 2 branches only).
428,000,000 YBN	402)
428,000,000 YBN	6312) Oldest fossil land animal, the millipede Pneumodesmus.
425,000,000 YBN	377) Lobefin fish (Coelacanths) evolve. Lobefin fish have a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin. There are 2 living species of coelacanths known. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Sarcopterygii INFRACLASS Crossopterygii ORDER Actinistia - coelacanths The Coelacanths are well known in the fossil record, but were thought to have gone extinct before the dinosaurs, but are found to be still alive in 1938.
417,000,000 YBN	123) Start Devonian period (417-354 mybn), end Silurian period (443-417 mybn).
417,000,000 YBN	378) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Sarcopterygii ORDER Dipnoi - lungfishes
412,000,000 YBN	403)
409,000,000 YBN	404)
400,000,000 YBN	85)
400,000,000 YBN	159)
400,000,000 YBN	236)
400,000,000 YBN	399)
385,000,000 YBN	405)	Gilboa, New York, USA
380,000,000 YBN	406)
380,000,000 YBN	6330) Fish "Tiktaalik", important transition between fish and amphibian (tetrapod).	(Fram Formation) Nunavut Territory, Canada
375,000,000 YBN	380)	Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)
375,000,000 YBN	2599) The Tiktaalik (TiK Tol iK), a genus of extinct sarcopterygian (lobe-finned) fish with many features akin to those of tetrapods (four-legged animals) lives now. Although the body scales, fin rays, lower jaw and palate are comparable to those in more primitive sarcopterygians, the tiktaalik also has a shortened skull roof, a modified ear region, a mobile neck, a functional wrist joint, and other features that predict tetrapod conditions. The morphological features and geological setting of (tiktaalik fossils) suggest a life in shallow-water, marginal and (earth surface) habitats.	Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, in northern Canada
368,000,000 YBN	407)	Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland
367,000,000 YBN	408)
365,000,000 YBN	160)
363,000,000 YBN	379)	Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)
360,000,000 YBN	237) Genetic comparison shows Ferns evolving now. Ferns are are flowerless, seedless vascular plants having roots, stems, and fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern or leaf of a palm) and reproducing by spores. There are around 12,000 species of Ferns (division Pteridophyta), which are nonflowering vascular plants that have true roots, stems, and complex leaves and reproduce by spores. The life cycle is characterized by an alternation of generations between the mature, fronded form (the sporophyte) familiar in greenhouses and gardens and the form that strongly resembles a moss or liverwort (the gametophyte). (describe life cycle)
359,000,000 YBN	243)	Scotland
354,000,000 YBN	124) Start Carboniferous period (354-290 mybn), end Devonian period (417-354 mybn).
350,000,000 YBN	361) Ray-finned fishes, (Chondrostei), Sturgeons and Paddlefish. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri
350,000,000 YBN	362) Ray finned fishes: Bichirs evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri
340,000,000 YBN	384)	Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland
338,000,000 YBN	410) (Later papers appear to ignore the ~338 MYBN Bathgate fossil SPW2326, but I cannot find any explanation why.)	Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland
335,000,000 YBN	6331)	(earliest possible Synapsid fossil: Cumberland group, Joggins formation.) Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada
330,000,000 YBN	409)
330,000,000 YBN	6307) Synapsid Pelycosauria evolve (Edaphosaurus, Dimetrodon). There are two main groups of synapsids: pelycosaurs (sail-backed reptiles) and therapsids (mammal-like reptiles). Pelycosaurs arise in the mid-Carboniferous from cotylosaurs and soon enjoy an extensive radiation through the early Permian, coming to sonstitute about hald of the known amniote genera of the time. Some like Edaphosaurus are herbivorous, however, most are carnivores that prey on fish and acquatic amphibians. Pelycosaurs differ in size but not in design. The most notable feature in some species is a broad "sail" along the back consisting of an extensive layer of skin supported internally by a row of fixed neural spines projecting from successive vertebrae. If the sail is brightly colored, it might have been used in courtship or in bluff displays with rivals, similar to ornamentations in birds. The sail may be a sun light collector: when turned broadside to the sun, blood moving through the sail is heated, then carried to the rest of the body. Somewhat suddenly pelycosaurs decline in numbers and are extinct by the end of the Permian. Therapsides evolve from them, and largely replace the Pelycosauria for a time as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
325,000,000 YBN	381) The amphibians: Caecilians evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians SUBCLASS Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866 ORDER Gymnophiona Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1814
324,000,000 YBN	411)	Upper Silesian Basin, Czech Republic
320,000,000 YBN	238) The earliest known seed bearing plants are the Pteridosperms, seed ferns known only from the fossil record. Gymnosperms are the earliest surviving seed bearing plants. A gymnosperm is any woody plant that reproduces by means of a seed (or ovule) in direct contact with the environment, as opposed to an angiosperm, or flowering plant, whose seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits. The four surviving gymnosperm divisions are Pinophyta (order Pinales, the most widespread), Cycadophyta (order Cycadales), Ginkgophyta (order Ginkgoales), and Gnetophyta (order Gnetales). More than half are trees; most of the rest are shrubs. The earliest known seed bearing plants are the Pteridosperms, seed ferns known only from the fossil record. A gymnosperm is any woody plant that reproduces by means of a seed (or ovule) in direct contact with the environment, as opposed to an angiosperm, or flowering plant, whose seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits. The four surviving gymnosperm divisions are Pinophyta (order Pinales, the most widespread), Cycadophyta (order Cycadales), Ginkgophyta (order Ginkgoales), and Gnetophyta (order Gnetales). More than half are trees; most of the rest are shrubs. Those widely found in the Northern Hemisphere are junipers, firs, larches, spruces, and pines; in the Southern Hemisphere, podocarps (Podocarpus). The wood of gymnosperms is often called softwood to differentiate it from the hardwood of angiosperms. Many timber and pulp trees are also planted as ornamentals. Gymnosperms also are a minor source of food; of essential oils used in soaps, air fresheners, disinfectants, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and perfumes; of tannin, used for curing leather; and of turpentines. Gymnosperms were a major component in the vegetation that was compressed over millions of years into coal. Most are evergreen. They produce male and female reproductive cells in separate male and female strobili. Gymnosperm Plant Divisions are: Pinophyta - Conifers "Pinaceae" 220 "Other conifers" 400 species Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo 1 species Cycadophyta - Cycads 130 species Gnetophyta - Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80 species ("Gymnosperm" probably should be pronounced as "EMnOSPRM", because in Greek the G is silent, similar to the C in "Ctenophore".)
320,000,000 YBN	245)
317,000,000 YBN	385)	(Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia, Canada
315,000,000 YBN	453)
305,000,000 YBN	242)
305,000,000 YBN	382) The amphibians: Frogs and Toads evolve. The oldest frog fossil is only 190 million years old. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians SUBCLASS Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866 ORDER Anura (Rafinesque, 1815) Hogg, 1839:152
305,000,000 YBN	383) Amphibians: Salamanders evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians SUBCLASS Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866 ORDER Caudata Scopoli, 1777
300,000,000 YBN	162)
300,000,000 YBN	387) Reptiles: Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins evolve. Testudines is the order of all turtles, tortoises and terrapins. Testudines are reptiles, most are aquatic or semiaquatic, fresh water or marine, but lay eggs on land. They have webbed feet or flippers and their body is covered by a horny shell from which only the legs, head and neck, and tail protrude when needed. The upper shell is called the carapace and the undershell the plastron. Tortoises are any of various terrestrial turtles, especially one of the family Testudinidae, characteristically having thick clublike hind limbs and a high, rounded carapace. Terrapins are any of various North American aquatic turtles of the family Emydiolae, especially the genus Malaclemys, which includes the diamondback terrapin. Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins (Vertebrates: Reptiles) evolve. Testudines is the order of all turtles, tortoises and terrapins. Testudines are reptiles, most are aquatic or semiaquatic, fresh water or marine, but lay eggs on land. They have webbed feet or flippers and their body is covered by a horny shell from which only the legs, head and neck, and tail protrude when needed. The upper shell is called the carapace and the undershell the plastron. Tortoises are any of various terrestrial turtles, especially one of the family Testudinidae, characteristically having thick clublike hind limbs and a high, rounded carapace. Terrapins are any of various North American aquatic turtles of the family Emydiolae, especially the genus Malaclemys, which includes the diamondback terrapin. There are inconsistencies in terminology. In the USA "turtle" is used broadly for all reptiles with a shell, "terrapin" applies to a large family, Emydidae, and "tortoise" refers to the slow moving terrestrial species (the land turtles) that enter water only to drink or soak. In Great Britain and Australia "tortoise" is applied generally to all members of the group except the marine species with paddle-shaped limbs which are called "turtles". DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Anapsida ORDER Testudines - turtles
290,000,000 YBN	125) Start Permian period (290-248 mybn), end Carboniferous period (354-290 mybn).
290,000,000 YBN	239)
287,000,000 YBN	6308) Synapsid Therapsids evolve (Cynodonts).
274,000,000 YBN	307) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Brown Algae (Phaeophyta, Class "Phaeophyceae" (FEo-FIS-E-I or FEo-FIS-E-E}) evolving now. Brown Algae is the most genetically primitive multicellular eukaryote still living on earth. Modern brown algae have both filamentous multicellularity and cell differentiation. The Phaeophyta are a phylum (division) of the kingdom Protista consisting of those organisms commonly called brown algae. Many of the Earth's familiar seaweeds are members of Phaeophyta. There are approximately 1,500 species. Like the chrysophytes, brown algae derive their color from the presence, in the cell chloroplasts, of several brownish carotenoid pigments, including fucoxanthin, in addition to the photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a and c. With only a few exceptions, brown algae are marine, growing in the colder oceans of the world, many in the tidal zone, where they are subjected to great stress from wave action; others grow in deep water. Among the brown algae are the largest of all algae, the giant kelps, which may reach a length of over 100 ft (30 m). Fucus (rockweed), Sargassum (gulfweed), and the simple filamentous Ectocarpus are other examples of brown algae. The cell wall of the brown algae consists of a cellulose differing chemically from that of plants. The outside is covered with a series of gelatinous pectic compounds, generically called algin; this substance, for which the large brown algae, or kelps, of the Pacific coast are harvested commercially, is used industrially as a stabilizer in emulsions and for other purposes. The normal food reserve of the brown algal cell is a soluble polysaccharide called laminarin; mannitol and oil also occur as storage products. The body, or thallus, of the larger brown algae may contain tissues differentiated for different functions, with stemlike, rootlike, and leaflike organs, the most complex structures of all algae. Some groups of brown algae have evolved an interesting type of alternation of generations, in which physiologically independent haploid gametophyte plants produce gametes, the fusion of which initiates the diploid sporophyte generation. The mature sporophyte plant produces, through meiosis, haploid spores, which develop into new gametophytes. The two generations, or phases, may be indistinguishable in size and form, or they may differ greatly. The genus Ectocarpus, for example, is found growing attached to larger algae. It has similar-looking gametophyte and sporophyte plants. In the kelps, however, the gametophyte is only a microscopic filament, in contrast to the occasionally tree-sized sporophyte. Most Brown algae are haplodiplontic. (Are brown algae cells totipotent (one can grow a complete organism)?) (It seems possible that the multicellular metazoans may have shared a common multicellular differentiated ancestor with the phaeophyceae. The alternative is that multicellularity and differentiation evolved separately in brown algae and metazoans like sponges and cnidarians. Some bacteria are multicellular, for example cyanobacteria. So possibly multicellularity evolved separately 3 times, or some multicellular DNA was preserved and re-emerged.) (Does brown algae grow from one cell to many? Are cells interchangeable? Are all cell totipotent?) KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colored groups CLASS Phaeophyceae (brown algae) Some people view brown algae as being in the plant kingdom, and others as being a multicellular protist in the protist kingdom. 2. Brown algae range from small forms with simple filaments to large multicellular (50-100 m long) seaweeds. (Fig. 30.8) 3. Brown algae have chlorophylls a and c and a fucoxanthin that give them their color. 4. Their reserve food is a carbohydrate called laminarin. 5. Seaweed refers to any large, complex alga. 6. Their cell walls contain a mucilaginous water-retaining material that inhibits desiccation. 7. Laminaria is an intertidal kelp that is unique among protists; this genus shows tissue differentiation. 8. Nereocystis and Macrocystis are giant kelps found in deeper water anchored to the bottom by their holdfasts. 9. Individuals of the genus Sargassum sometimes break off from their holdfasts and form floating masses. 10. Brown algae provide food and habitat for marine organisms, and they are also important to humans. a. Brown algae are harvested for human food and for fertilizer in several parts of the world. b. They are a source of algin, a pectin-like substance added to give foods a stable, smooth consistency. 11. Most have an alternation of generations life cycle. 12. Fucus is an intertidal rockweed; meiotic cell division produces gametes and adult is always diploid.
270,000,000 YBN	240)
266,000,000 YBN	308) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Eukaryote Heterokont Subphylum "Diatomeae" (Diatoms) evolving now. Diatoms are diplontic. Diatoms are a very common types of phytoplankton. Most diatoms are unicellular, although some form chains or simple colonies. A characteristic feature of diatom cells is that they are encased within a unique cell wall made of silica. These walls show a wide diversity in form, some quite beautiful and ornate, but usually consist of two symmetrical sides with a split between them, hence the group name. Life Cycle When a cell divides each new cell takes as its epitheca a valve of the parent frustule, and within ten to twenty minutes builds its own hypotheca; this process may occur between one and eight times per day. Availability of dissolved silica limits the rate of vegetative reproduction, but also because this method progressively reduces the average size of the diatom frustule in a given population there is a certain threshold at which restoration of frustule size is neccesary. Auxospores are then produced, which are cells that posses a different wall structure lacking the siliceous frustule and swell to the maximum frustule size. The auxospore then forms an initial cell which forms a new frustule of maximum size within itself. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colored groups CLASS Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) There are more than 200 genera of living diatoms, and it is estimated that there are approximately 100 000 extant species (Round & Crawford, 1990). Diatoms are a widespread group and can be found in the oceans, in freshwater, in soils and on damp surfaces. Their chloroplasts are typical of heterokonts, with four membranes and containing pigments such as fucoxanthin. Individuals usually lack flagella, but they are present in gametes and have the usual heterokont structure, except they lack the hairs (mastigonemes) characteristic in other groups. Most diatom species are non-motile but some are capable of an oozing motion. As their relatively dense cell walls cause them to readily sink, planktonic forms in open water usually rely on turbulent mixing of the upper layers by the wind to keep them suspended in sunlit surface waters. Some species actively regulate their buoyancy to counter sinking. Diatoms cells are contained within a unique silicate (silicic acid) cell wall comprised of two separate valves (or shells). The biogenic silica that the cell wall is composed of is synthesised intracellularly by the polymerisation of silicic acid monomers. This material is then extruded to the cell exterior and added to the wall. Diatom cell walls are also called frustules or tests, and their two valves typically overlap one other like the two halves of a petri dish. In most species, when a diatom divides to produce two daughter cells, each cell keeps one of the two valves and grows a smaller valve within it. As a result, after each division cycle the average size of diatom cells in the population gets smaller. Once such cells reach a certain minimum size, rather than simply divide vegetatively, they reverse this decline by forming an auxospore. This expands in size to give rise to a much larger cell, which then returns to size-diminishing divisions. Auxospore production is almost always linked to meiosis and sexual reproduction. Diatoms are traditionally divided into two orders: centric diatoms (Centrales), which are radially symmetric, and pennate diatoms (Pennales), which are bilaterally symmetric. The former are paraphyletic to the latter. A more recent classification is that of Round & Crawford (1990), who divide the diatoms into three classes: centric diatoms (Coscinodiscophyceae), pennate diatoms without a raphe (Fragilariophyceae), and pennate diatoms with a raphe (Bacillariophyceae). It is probable there will be further revisions as our understanding of their relationships increases. Planktonic forms in freshwater and marine environments typically exhibit a "bloom and bust" lifestyle. When conditions in the upper mixed layer (nutrients and light) are favourable (e.g. at the start of spring) their competitive edge (Furnas, 1990) allows them to quickly dominate phytoplankton communities ("bloom"). When conditions turn unfavourable, usually upon depletion of nutrients, diatom cells typically increase in sinking rate and exit the upper mixed layer ("bust"). This sinking is induced by either a loss of buoyancy control, the synthesis of mucilage that sticks diatoms cells together, or the production of heavy resting spores. In the open ocean, the condition that typically causes diatom (spring) blooms to end is a lack of silicon. Unlike other nutrients, this is only a major requirement of diatoms so it is not regenerated in the plankton ecosystem as efficiently as, for instance, nitrogen or phosphorus nutrients. This can be seen in maps of surface nutrient concentrations - as nutrients decline along gradients, silicon is usually the first to be exhausted (followed normally by nitrogen then phosphorus). Heterokont chloroplasts appear to be derived from those of red algae, rather than directly from prokaryotes as occurs in plants. This suggests they had a more recent origin than many other algae. However, fossil evidence is scant, and it is really only with the evolution of the diatoms themselves that the heterokonts make a serious impression on the fossil record. The earliest known fossil diatoms date from the early Jurassic (~185 Ma; Kooistra & Medlin, 1996), although recent genetic (Kooistra & Medlin, 1996) and sedimentary (Schieber, Krinsley & Riciputi, 2000) evidence suggests an earlier origin. Medlin et al. (1997) suggest that their origin may be related to the end-Permian mass extinction (~250 Ma), after which many marine niches were opened. The gap between this event and the time that fossil diatoms first appear may indicate a period when diatoms were unsilicified and their evolution was cryptic (Raven & Waite, 2004). Since the advent of silicification, diatoms have made a significant impression on the fossil record, with major deposits of fossil diatoms found as far back as the early Cretaceous, and some rocks (diatomaceous earth, diatomite, kieselguhr) being composed almost entirely of them. Although the diatoms may have existed since the Triassic, the timing of their ascendancy and "take-over" of the silicon cycle is more recent. 3. Diatoms are the most numerous unicellular algae in the oceans. (Fig. 30.6a) 4. They are extremely numerous and an important source of food and O2 in aquatic systems. 5. Diatom cell walls consist of two silica-impregnated halves or valves. a. When diatoms reproduce asexually, each received one old valve. b. The new valve fits inside the old one; therefore, the new diatom is smaller than the original one. c. This continues until they are about 30 percent of their original size. d. Then they reproduce sexually; a zygote grows and divides mitotically to form diatoms of normal size. 6. The cell wall has an outer layer of silica (glass) with a variety of markings formed by pores. 7. Diatom remains accumulate on the ocean floor and are mined as diatomaceous earth for use as filters, abrasives, etc. Life Cycle (cont.) Many neritic planktonic diatoms alternate between a vegetative reproductive phase and a thicker walled resting cyst or statospore stage. The siliceous resting spore commonly forms after a period of active vegetative reproduction when nutrient levels have been depleted. Statospores may remain entirely within the the parent cell, partially within the parent cell or be isolated from it. An increase in nutreint levels and/or length of daylight cause the statospore to germinate and return to its normal vegatative state. Seasonal upwelling is therefore a vital part of many diatoms life cycle as a provider of nutrients and as a transport mechanism which brings statospores or their vegetative products up into the photic zone. The resting spore morphology of some species is similar to that of the corresponding vegetative cell, whereas in other species the resting spores and the vegetative cells differ strongly. The two valves of a resting spore may be similar or distinctly different. Often the first valve formed is more similar to the valves of the vegetative cells than the second valve.
260,000,000 YBN	364) Ray-finned fishes: Gars. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri
255,000,000 YBN	389) Reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ} evolve. The tuatara is a lizardlike reptile, and is the last survivor of the reptilian order Rhynchocephalia, which flourishes in the early Mesozoic era before the rise of the dinosaurs. Also called sphenodon, it is found on islands off the New Zealand coast and in Karori Wildlife Sanctuary, Wellington, New Zealand. The olive colored, yellow-speckled tuatara reaches a length of 60 cm (2 ft) or more. It is very lizardlike in external form, with a crest of spines down its neck and back. However, its internal anatomy, its scales, and the attachment of its teeth are different from those of lizards, and its body chemistry allows it to function at temperatures close to freezing. Like certain lizards, tuataras have a vestigial third eye (pineal eye) on top of their head, but this organ is probably not sensitive to light. Tuataras usually inhabit the breeding burrows of certain small petrels (sea birds). They feed on small animals, especially insects, and reproduce by laying eggs. Captive tuataras mature in about 20 years, and it appears that their life span may exceed a century by several decades. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Sphenodontida FAMILY Sphenodontidae™ - tuataras	(Islands of) New Zealand
251,400,000 YBN	102) End-Permian mass extinction. 82% of all genera are observed extinct. The Permian–Triassic extinction event is the Earth's most severe extinction event, with up to 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct It is the only known mass extinction of insects. The are 5 known major mass extinctions.
251,000,000 YBN	452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe) forms. Pangaea is a hypothetical supercontinent that included all the landmasses of the earth before the Triassic Period. Pangaea broke apart during the Triassic and Jurassic Periods, separating into Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
251,000,000 YBN	6306) Oldest fossil egg.	Texas (verify)
250,000,000 YBN	241)
250,000,000 YBN	368) Bowfin (Ray-finned) fishes evolve. Bowfins (Amiiformes) are a primitive bony freshwater fish of central and eastern North America, with a long spineless dorsal fin. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Halecomorphi ORDER Amiiformes
248,000,000 YBN	54) End of Paleozoic and start of Mesozoic Supereon, and the end of the Permian (290-248 mybn) and start of the Triassic period (248-206 mybn).
245,000,000 YBN	392) Reptiles: Crocodiles, Allegators, Caimans evolve. Reptiles: Crocodiles, Allegators, Caimans evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Archosauromorpha DIVISION Archosauria SUBDIVISION Crurotarsi - crurotarsans SUPERORDER Crocodylomorpha ORDER Crocodylia™ - crocodiles
239,000,000 YBN	6298) Dinosaurs divide into two major lines: Ornithischians (Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and Saurischians (Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). The Ornithischians will evolve into both bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters (herbavores), and the Saurischians will evolve into bipedal meat-eaters (carnivores) and quadrupedal plant-eaters.
230,000,000 YBN	232)
228,000,000 YBN	412)	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
228,000,000 YBN	6299) Oldest dinosaur fossil (Eoraptor). Oldest dinosaur fossil (Eoraptor). This dinosaur is a cat-sized meat eater.	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
225,000,000 YBN	126)	(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA
220,000,000 YBN	400)	(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA
220,000,000 YBN	428)
210,000,000 YBN	369) Ancestor of all (Ray-Finned) teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolves. Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a large group of fishes with bony skeletons, including most common fishes, different from cartilaginous fishes such as sharks and rays. Teleosts will grow to include (bonytongues, eels, herrings, anchovies, carp, minnows, piranha, salmon, trout, pike, perch, seahorse, cod). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
210,000,000 YBN	390) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Squamata SUBORDER Lacertilia INFRAORDER Iguania
210,000,000 YBN	391) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Squamata SUBORDER Serpentes (Linnaeus, 1758) - snakes
210,000,000 YBN	413) (It's interesting that there is not an earlier form - like a much smaller carapace. State the theories about the selective advantage of a solid shelled back.)
210,000,000 YBN	6313) Earliest extant Teleosts: Bonytongues. Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a large group of fishes with bony skeletons, including most common fishes, different from cartilaginous fishes such as sharks and rays. Teleosts will grow to include (bonytongues, eels, herrings, anchovies, carp, minnows, piranha, salmon, trout, pike, perch, seahorse, cod). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
209,500,000 YBN	489) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Triconodonta
206,000,000 YBN	127)
201,400,000 YBN	228)
200,000,000 YBN	370) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
200,000,000 YBN	6285) Earliest certain dinoflagellate fossil. The first dinoflagellate to appear in the fossil record is Sahulidinium ottii (of uncertain family status) from the late Anisian (Middle Triassic, 240 Ma). The earliest undisputed, structural fossils of dinoflagellates are cyts dating from the Triassic (e.g., Suessia swabiana c200 Ma), with a few likely Permian records. Some Silurian (c410 Ma) fossils have been attributed to the group but the relation is uncertain.
190,000,000 YBN	358) Jawed fishes: squalea {SKWAlEo} evolve (rays, skates, sawfishes). Rays and sharks are members of the Class "Chondrichthyes", cartilaginous fishes.
190,000,000 YBN	359) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like fishes INFRACLASS Euselachii COHORT Neoselachii DIVISION Galeomorphii ORDER Carcharhiniformes - ground sharks ORDER Heterodontiformes - bullhead sharks ORDER Lamniformes - mackerel sharks and relatives ORDER Orectolobiformes - carpet sharks DIVISION Squalea
190,000,000 YBN	371) Teleosts: herrings and anchovies.
190,000,000 YBN	6289) Supercontinent Pangea splits into Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern part, Laurasia will form North America and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana will form South America and Africa.	Pangea
185,000,000 YBN	194)
180,000,000 YBN	456) Earliest extant mammals, monotremes {moNeTrEMZ} evolve. Monotremes are an order of primitive egg-laying mammals restricted to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea and consisting of only the platypus and two species of echidna. Except for their egg laying, they have mammalian characteristics, such as mammary glands, hair, and a complete diaphragm. Monotreme means single hole in Greek. As with reptiles and birds, the anus, the urinary tract and the reproductive tract empty into a single shared opening, the cloaca. The monotremes do not have microscopic eggs like the other mammals, but have two-centimeter eggs with a tough white leathery shell which contains nutrients to feed the baby until its ready to hatch. The baby monotreme hatches like a reptile or bird, using an egg-tooth at the end of its bill. Monotremes are like mammals in secreting milk for their young, but they lack discrete nipples, instead milk oozes out from pores over a wide area of skin and licked up by the baby who holds onto hairs on the mother's belly. The earliest monotreme (mammal) fossil (Steropodon galmani) is 112 million years old and from Australia. Monotremes are the oldest surviving warm blooded and hair growing species. (verify- perhaps the earliest bird is) (Since monotremes lay eggs, it implies that the transition from egg laying to live birth did not happen until after any common warm blooded ancestor of pterosaurs, birds, and mammals who was presumably an egg laying species. So all reptiles and mammals were egg laying at least until 180 MYBN.) Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Order Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740	Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
179,000,000 YBN	250)
179,000,000 YBN	6288) Genetic comparison shows earliest extant flowering plant (Angiosperm) "Amborella" evolving now. There is only 1 species of Amborella still living.
171,000,000 YBN	247)
170,000,000 YBN	372) Teleosts: carp, minnows, piranhas. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
170,000,000 YBN	373) Teleosts: salmon, trout, pike. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
165,000,000 YBN	248)
165,000,000 YBN	457)	China
160,000,000 YBN	163)	(Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning Province, China
158,000,000 YBN	249)
155,000,000 YBN	251)
155,000,000 YBN	253) * Basal eudicots o Ranunculales o Buxales o Trochodendrales o Proteales o Gunnerales o Berberidopsidales o Dilleniales o Caryophyllales o Saxifragales o Santalales o Vitales * Basal rosids o Crossosomatales o Geraniales o Myrtales * Eurosids I o Zygophyllales o Celastrales o Malpighiales o Oxalidales o Fabales o Rosales o Cucurbitales o Fagales * Eurosids II o Brassicales o Malvales o Sapindales * Basal asterids o Cornales o Ericales * Euasterids I o Garryales o Solanales o Gentianales o Lamiales o Unplaced: Boraginaceae * Euasterids II o Aquifoliales o Apiales o Dipsacales o Asterales
154,000,000 YBN	252)
154,000,000 YBN	265) The APG II classification of the Asparagales is as follows: * Alliaceae (onion family: chive, garlic, onion) o Agapanthaceae o Amaryllidaceae (amaryllis family) * Asparagaceae (asparagus family) o Agavaceae (agave family: agave, yucca) o Aphyllanthaceae o Hesperocallidaceae o Hyacinthaceae (hyacinth family: bluebell, hyacinth) o Laxmanniaceae o Ruscaceae o Themidaceae * Asteliaceae * Blandfordiaceae * Boryaceae * Doryanthaceae * Hypoxidaceae * Iridaceae (iris family) * Ixioliriaceae * Lanariaceae * Orchidaceae (orchid family) * Tecophilaeaceae * Xanthorrhoeaceae o Asphodelaceae (asphodel family: aloe, asphdel) o Hemerocallidaceae
150,000,000 YBN	246)	western USA
150,000,000 YBN	330) Stegosaurus, an armored, plant-eating dinosaur lives around this time. Stegosaurus has sharp spikes on its tail and large bony plates on its back. The plates may be used for display or for controlling its body temperature.	western USA
150,000,000 YBN	374) Teleosts: Lightfish and Dragonfish. Lightfish are bioluminescent fish. (verify) Bioluminescence is the emission of light by an organism or biochemical system. It occurs in a wide range of protists and animals, including bacteria and fungi, insects, marine invertebrates, and fish. It is not known to exist naturally in true plants or in amphibians, reptiles, birds, or mammals. It results from a chemical reaction that produces radiant energy very efficiently, giving off very little heat. The essential light-emitting components are usually the organic molecule luciferin and the enzyme luciferase, which are specific for different organisms. In higher organisms, light production is used to frighten predators and to help members of a species recognize each other. Its functional role in lower organisms such as bacteria, dinoflagellates, and fungi is uncertain. Luminous species are widely scattered taxonomically, with no clear-cut pattern, though most are marine. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
150,000,000 YBN	393)
150,000,000 YBN	394) John Ostrom describes the historical background of the Archaeopteryx fossils: "... Possibly no other zoological specimens, fossil or Recent, are considered so importa nt as are those of Archeopteryx lithographica (see Figs 1, 2 and 3). Certainly few other specimens have generated such widespread interest or provoked as much speculation and controversy. The reasons are several: these specimens are the oldest (Tithonian = Late Jurassic) known fossil bird remains; they are extremely rare, only five specimens (excluding the solitary feather) are known at present; several of these preserve remarkably detailed impressions of feathers and an extraordinary mixture of reptilian and avian characters; and most important of all, because of the last fact, out of all presently known fossil and living organisms, these specimens are widely recognized as constituting the best example of an organism perfectly intermediate between two higher taxonomic categories-representing an ideal transitional stage between ancestral and descendant stocks. Archaeopteryx may well be the most impressive fossil evidence of the fact of organic evolution. ... The first still-verifiable evidence of Jurassic birds is the imprint of a solitary feather in a small slab of these same Solnhofen limestones (Fig. 2A). This find was reported by von Meyer (1861a) in a letter to Professor H. Bronn, published in Bronn’s Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie (p. 561). Less than two months later, von Meyer (1861b) reported the discovery in the same limestone strata of a partial skeleton associated with distinct impressions of feathers. This find, the now well-k nown London specimen (Fig. 1A), is currently in the British Museum (Natural History) in London. At first, some scholars questioned the authenticity of both specimens, but von Meyer (1862) established them as genuine.". Some scientists view Archaeopteryx as probably a flightless feathered dinosaur. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Class Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds {Subclass †Archaeornithes}	Solnhofen, Germany
147,000,000 YBN	254)
146,000,000 YBN	490)
145,000,000 YBN	415) (Note that the authors reject the 1995 claim that this sediment is only 122 million years old, and support an age of about 145 million years old.)	(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China
144,000,000 YBN	128) Start Cretaceous period (144-65 mybn), end Jurassic period (206-144 mybn).
136,000,000 YBN	460)
132,000,000 YBN	462)
130,000,000 YBN	375) Teleosts: Perch, seahorses, flying fish, pufferfish, barracuda. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
130,000,000 YBN	376) Teleosts: cod, anglerfish. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei
128,000,000 YBN	282) # Euasterids II ORDER Aquifoliales (hollies) ORDER Apiales ORDER Dipsacales ORDER Asterales
128,000,000 YBN	284) # Euasterids II ORDER Aquifoliales (hollies) ORDER Apiales (dill, chervil, angelica, celery, caraway, poison hemlock, coriander {cilantro}, cumin, carrot, sea holly, fennel, cicely, parsnip, parsley, anise, lovage, ginseng, ivy) ORDER Dipsacales (Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn Salad) ORDER Asterales
125,000,000 YBN	395) (Note that the authors of the report of the earliest fossilized flower support a {late Jurassic} date of 145 MYBN for the Yixian Formation.) Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Class Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds {Subclass †Archaeornithes}	(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China
124,000,000 YBN	267)
120,000,000 YBN	463) Neornithes {nEORnitEZ} evolve (modern birds: the most recent common ancestor of all living birds). Neornithes is the subclass of Aves that contains all of the known birds other than those placed in the Archaeornithes. Neornithes includes more than 30 orders, both fossil and living, its members are characterized by a bony, keeled sternum with fully developed powers of flapping flight (secondarily lost in a number of groups); a short tail with fused vertebrae to which all tail feathers attach; a large fused pelvic girdle; and a large brain and eyes contained within a fused braincase. In addition Neornithes have a fully-separated four-chambered heart and typically exhibit complex social behaviors.
114,000,000 YBN	274) # Basal asterids * Cornales (dogwoods, tupelo, dove tree) * Ericales
114,000,000 YBN	275) # Basal asterids * Cornales (dogwoods, tupelo, dove tree) * Ericales (kiwifruit, Impatiens, ebony, persimmon, heather, crowberry, rhododendrons, azaleas, cranberry, blueberry, lingonberry, bilberry, huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose, sapodilla, mamey sapote (sapota), chicle, balatá, canistel, pitcher plants {carniverous, genus Sarracenia}, tea)
112,000,000 YBN	481) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Monotremata Family: Steropodontidae Genus: Steropodon Species: S. galmani Binomial name Steropo don galmani Archer, Flannery, Ritchie, & Molnar, 1985	Lightning Ridge in north central New South Wales, Australia
110,000,000 YBN	416) Sauroposeidon fossil, a long-neck (sauropod) brachiosaur from Oklahoma, possibly the tallest animal of all time, at an estimated height of 60 feet.	Oklahoma, USA
109,000,000 YBN	256)
107,000,000 YBN	277) # Euasterids I ORDER Garryales ORDER Solanales ORDER Gentianales ORDER Lamiales ORDER Unplaced: Boraginaceae
105,000,000 YBN	417)
105,000,000 YBN	491)	Africa
101,000,000 YBN	268) ORDER Zygophyllales (is not on s28 APG2) FAMILY Zygophyllaceae FAMILY Krameriaceae
101,000,000 YBN	285)
100,000,000 YBN	164)
100,000,000 YBN	418) Carnotaurus fossil, a horned, meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from South America. The fossil includes skin impressions of its face.	South America
100,000,000 YBN	464)
100,000,000 YBN	465)
100,000,000 YBN	480) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Monotremata Family: Kollikodontidae Genus: Kollikodon Species: K. ritchiei Binomial name Kolliko don ritchiei Flannery, Archer, Rich & Jones, 1995
95,000,000 YBN	283)
95,000,000 YBN	419) Spinosaurus fossil, perhaps the largest meat-eating dinosaur, estimated to have been 45 to 50 feet long. The only skeleton ever found was destroyed during World War 2.
95,000,000 YBN	498)
94,000,000 YBN	258)
94,000,000 YBN	261) ORDER Fabales {FoBAlEZ} 4 Families FAMILY Fabaceae (legumes) 3 Subfamilies SUBFAMILY Faboideae (beans (green, lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung, fava, cow (black-eyed), popping), peas, peanuts, soybeans, lentils, chick pea (garbanzo), jicama, lupins, clover, alfalfa, kudzu) SUBFAMILY Caesalpinioideae (brazilwood, palo verde, honey locust, Judas-tree, Mopane, Coralwood, Hymenaea, Tamarind) SUBFAMILY Mimosoideae (acacia, anadenanthera, leucaena, mimosa {sensitive plant}, mesquite)
91,000,000 YBN	259) ORDER Malpighiales 37 FAMILIES FAMILY Clusiaceae (gambooge, mangosteen) FAMILY Erythryloxaceae (coca) FAMILY Euphorbiaceae (rubber tree, cassava (manioc) {tapioca}, castor oil plant, poinsettia) FAMILY Linaceae (flax) FAMILY Malpighiaceae (acerola (barbados cherry)) FAMILY Salicaceae (willow, poplar, aspen) FAMILY Violaceae (violet (pansy))
91,000,000 YBN	260)
90,000,000 YBN	270) Eurosids II ORDER Brassicales (horseradish, rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black, indian, sarepta, asian}, rutagbaga, kale, Chinese broccoli, cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage (white and red) {coleslaw, sauerkraut}, kohlrabi, broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette, papaya) ORDER Malvales ORDER Sapindales
89,000,000 YBN	262) ORDER Rosales 9 Families FAMILY Barbeyaceae FAMILY Cannabaceae (hemp family: cannibis, hackberry, hop) FAMILY Dirachmaceae FAMILY Elaeagnaceae FAMILY Moraceae (mulberry family: breadfruit, cempedak, jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig ) FAMILY Rosaceae (rose family) SUBFAMILY Rosoideae (strawberry, rose, red raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry, cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry, dewberry, thimbleberry) SUBFAMILY Spiraeoideae (serviceberry, chokeberry, quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, medlar, pair) SUBFAMILY Maloideae SUBFAMILY Amygdaloideae or Prunoideae (plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, almonds) FAMILY Rhamnaceae (buckthorn family: jujube) FAMILY Ulmaceae (elm family: elm) FAMILY Urticaceae (nettle family)
89,000,000 YBN	279)
87,000,000 YBN	266)
86,000,000 YBN	278) # Euasterids I ORDER Garryales ORDER Solanales {SOlanAlEZ} (deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum {bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento}, cayenne pepper, datura, tomato, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, water spinach) ORDER Gentianales ORDER Lamiales ORDER Unplaced: Boraginaceae	Americas
85,000,000 YBN	263) ORDER Cucurbitales (KYUKRBiTAlEZ} 1600 species in seven families. The largest families are Begoniaceae with 920 species and Cucurbitaceae with 640 species. FAMILY Cucurbitaceae (gourd family: watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba, cucumber {pickles}, gourds, pumpkins, squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut, cushaw, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti), zucchini) FAMILY Begoniaceae (begonia family: begonia) FAMILY Datiscaceae FAMILY Tetramelaceae FAMILY Corynocarpaceae FAMILY Coriariaceae FAMILY Anisophylleaceae	Americas
85,000,000 YBN	264) ORDER Fagales {FaGAlEZ} FAMILY Betulaceae - Birch family (Birch, Hornbeam, Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut}) FAMILY Casuarinaceae - She-oak family FAMILY Fagaceae - Beech family (Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {nut}, cork, flooring) FAMILY Juglandaceae - Walnut family (walnut, pecan, hickory {nut}) FAMILY Myricaceae - Bayberry family (Bayberry {wax, food}) FAMILY Nothofagaceae - Southern beech family FAMILY Rhoipteleaceae - Rhoiptelea family FAMILY Ticodendraceae - Ticodendron family
85,000,000 YBN	466)
85,000,000 YBN	467)
85,000,000 YBN	499)	Laurasia
84,000,000 YBN	454)
82,000,000 YBN	271) Eurosids II ORDER Brassicales (horseradish, rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black, indian, sarepta, asian}, rutagbaga, kale, Chinese broccoli, cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage (white and red) {coleslaw, sauerkraut}, kohlrabi, broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette, papaya) ORDER Malvales (okra, marsh mallow, kola nut, cotton, hibiscus, balsa, cacao {chocolate}) ORDER Sapindales	Americas
82,000,000 YBN	272) Eurosids II ORDER Brassicales (horseradish, rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black, indian, sarepta, asian}, rutagbaga, kale, Chinese broccoli, cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage (white and red) {coleslaw, sauerkraut}, kohlrabi, broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette, papaya) ORDER Malvales (okra, marsh mallow, kola nut, cotton, hibiscus, balsa, cacao {chocolate}) ORDER Sapindales (maple, buckeye, horse chestnut, longan, lychee, rambutan, guarana, bael, orange, lemon, grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo, kumquat, langsat, duku, mahogany cashew, mango, pistachio, sumac, peppertree, poison-ivy, frankincense	Americas
82,000,000 YBN	420) Hadrosaurs, duck-billed dinosaurs are common. Duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs) are common like Corythyosaurus, Edmontosaurus, Lambeosaurus, Maiasaurus, and Parasaurolophus. Maiasaurs are examples of dinosaurs from which fossil nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have been found.
82,000,000 YBN	500)
81,000,000 YBN	281) # Euasterids I ORDER Garryales ORDER Solanales (deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum {bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento}, cayenne pepper, datura, tomatos, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, water spinach) ORDER Gentianales (gentian, dogbane, carissa (Natal plum), oleander, logania, coffee) ORDER Lamiales (lavender, mint, peppermint, basil, marjoram, oregano, perilla, rosemary, sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame, corkscrew plants, bladderwort, snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, jasmine) ORDER Unplaced: Boraginaceae (forget-me-not)
80,000,000 YBN	421) Ceratopsian dinosaurs. Protoceratops, an early shield-headed (ceratopsian) dinosaur fossil. This is the first dinosaur discovered with fossil eggs. These eggs and nests were found in Mongolia in the 1920's.	Mongolia, China
80,000,000 YBN	422) Raptor (dromaeosaur) fossils. Raptors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous dinosaurs, which have large, hook claws on their feet. Velociraptor is one example. The most famous Velociraptor is a skeleton preserved in combat with a Protoceratops from Mongolia, China.
80,000,000 YBN	482) Marsupials "Didelphimorphia" evolve (American and true opossums). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Didelphimorphia Gill, 1872 Family: Didelphidae Gray, 1821	Americas
80,000,000 YBN	501)	Laurasia
78,000,000 YBN	502)	Laurasia
77,000,000 YBN	483)	Andes Mountains, South America
76,000,000 YBN	503)	Laurasia
75,000,000 YBN	204) Oldest fossil of testate amoeba from Grand Canyon, USA. Earliest known protozoan fossil (single celled nonphotosynthesizing eukaryotes). This fossil indicates that the last common ancestor of animals and fungi has already appeared by 750 million years ago.	( black shales of Chuar Group) Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA
75,000,000 YBN	423)
75,000,000 YBN	492) Aardvark (Afrotheres) evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria:	Africa
75,000,000 YBN	504)	Laurasia
75,000,000 YBN	505)	Laurasia
74,000,000 YBN	280)
73,000,000 YBN	484) The Australian Marsupial Order Peramelemorphia evolves (Bandicoots and Bilbies {BiLBEZ}). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Peramelemorphia Ameghino, 1889	Australia
70,000,000 YBN	424) Two of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs of all time exist. Tyrannosaurus rex is the top predator in North America and Giganotosaurus is in South America. (Looking at the dinosaurs is like looking at what life on planets of other stars might look like.)	Americas
70,000,000 YBN	425)
70,000,000 YBN	426)
70,000,000 YBN	493)	Africa
70,000,000 YBN	494)	Africa
70,000,000 YBN	507) Placental Mammals: Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas {PIKuZ} (Order "Lagomorpha") evolve. Rabbits were once classified as rodents, because they also have very prominent gnawing teeth at the front, but were separated into their own order called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and rodents are grouped together in a cohort named "Glires".
70,000,000 YBN	516) Placental Mammals: Tree Shrews (Order Scandentia) and Colugos {KolUGOZ} (Order Dermoptera) evolve. (verify) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires
70,000,000 YBN	1383) The giant bird-like dinosaur Gigantoraptor erlianensis lives now.
65,500,000 YBN	55) End of Mesozoic and start of Cenozoic Supereon.
65,500,000 YBN	397) End-Cretaceous mass extinction. 47% of all genera are observed extinct. Dinosaurs become extinct. Also called the K-T (Kretaceous-Tertiary) extinction. Huge amounts of lava erupted from India, and a comet or meteor collided with the Earth in what is now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. No large animals survived on land, in the air, or in the sea.
65,000,000 YBN	129) Start Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn), end Cretaceous period (144-65 mybn).
65,000,000 YBN	427)
65,000,000 YBN	429) There is a rapid increase in new species of fossil mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are small.
65,000,000 YBN	468)
65,000,000 YBN	470) Birds "Strigiformes" {STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls). Birds "Strigiformes" {STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
65,000,000 YBN	485) Australian marsupial order "Notoryctemorphia" evolve (Marsupial moles). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Notoryctemorphia Kirsch, in Hunsaker, 1977 Family: Notoryctidae Ogilby, 1892 Genus: Notoryctes Stirling, 1891	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	486) Australian marsupials order "Dasyuromorphia" evolves (Tasmanian Devil, Numbat). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Dasyuromorphia Gill, 1872	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	487)
65,000,000 YBN	488) Australian marsupials "Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolve (Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas). Australian marsupials "Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolve (Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Diprotodontia Owen, 1866	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	508)
65,000,000 YBN	509)
65,000,000 YBN	807)
63,000,000 YBN	510)
63,000,000 YBN	587)	Africa or India
63,000,000 YBN	588) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates
62,000,000 YBN	495)	Africa
60,000,000 YBN	430)
60,000,000 YBN	431)
60,000,000 YBN	432)
60,000,000 YBN	586) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates	Morocco, Africa
60,000,000 YBN	796)
60,000,000 YBN	808)
59,000,000 YBN	496)	Africa
59,000,000 YBN	497) Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria:
58,000,000 YBN	511)
58,000,000 YBN	524) Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ} evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Family: Tarsiidae
57,000,000 YBN	433)
55,000,000 YBN	435)
55,000,000 YBN	436)
55,000,000 YBN	512)
55,000,000 YBN	809)
54,970,000 YBN	434)
54,000,000 YBN	810)
53,500,000 YBN	812)
52,500,000 YBN	6179)	(Green River Formation) Wyoming
51,000,000 YBN	513) Rodents: Old World Porcupines evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
50,000,000 YBN	437)	Algeria, Africa
50,000,000 YBN	438)	Himalyia Mountains, India
50,000,000 YBN	518) Primates: Lorises {LORiSEZ}, Bushbabbies, Pottos {PoTTOZ} (Primate Family "Loridae") evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates
50,000,000 YBN	816)
49,000,000 YBN	439)
49,000,000 YBN	472)
49,000,000 YBN	474) Birds "Falconiformes" {FaLKoNiFORmEZ} evolve (falcons, hawks, eagles, Old World vultures). Birds "Falconiformes" {FaLKeNiFORmEZ} evolve (falcons, hawks, eagles, Old World vultures).
49,000,000 YBN	514)
49,000,000 YBN	515) Rodents: New World porcupines, guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ}, capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ} evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
46,000,000 YBN	817)
45,000,000 YBN	519) Primate: Aye-aye {I-I} (Family "Daubentoniidae") evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates
40,000,000 YBN	440)	Alpine mountains
40,000,000 YBN	441)
40,000,000 YBN	525)	Africa
40,000,000 YBN	815)
37,000,000 YBN	442)
37,000,000 YBN	471)
37,000,000 YBN	473)
37,000,000 YBN	475) (Describe origin of name "cuckoo".)
37,000,000 YBN	476)
34,000,000 YBN	813)
34,000,000 YBN	814)
33,000,000 YBN	611) Amniota splits into Sauropsida and Synapsida. Sauropsida leads to all reptiles and birds, while Synapsida leads to all mammals.
30,000,000 YBN	443)	India
30,000,000 YBN	520)
28,000,000 YBN	477)
28,000,000 YBN	811) (Toothed and Baleen split.)
27,000,000 YBN	521)
25,000,000 YBN	444)
25,000,000 YBN	522)
25,000,000 YBN	531)	(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa
24,000,000 YBN	662)
23,000,000 YBN	478)	Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
23,000,000 YBN	479) Monotreme: "Duck-Billed Platypus" evolves. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Family Ornithorhynchidae (Gray, 1825) Burnett, 1830 Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Monotremata Family: Ornithorhynchidae Genus: Ornithorhynchus Blumenbach, 1800 Species: O. anatinus	Australia and Tasmania
22,000,000 YBN	526) New World Monkeys: Sakis, Uakaris {WoKoREZ}, and Titis {TETEZ} evolve.
22,000,000 YBN	527) New World Monkeys: Howler, Spider and Woolly monkeys evolve.
22,000,000 YBN	528) New World Monkeys: Capuchin {KaPYUCiN} and Squirrel monkeys evolve.	Americas
22,000,000 YBN	558) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Griphopithecidae (extinct) Genus: Kenyapithecus (extinct) detail: (Notice this is not in the Homininae subfamily) Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Genus †Siamopithecus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Genus †Wailekia Ducrocq et al., 1995 Genus †Dionysopithecus Li, 1978 Genus †Afropithecus R.E. Leakey & M.G. Leakey, 1986 Genus †Turkanapithecus R.E. Leakey & M.G. Leakey, 1986 Genus †Otavipithecus Conroy et al., 1992 Family †Pliopithecidae Zapfe, 1960 Family Cercopithecidae™ Gray, 1821 - Old World monkeys Family Hominidae Gray, 1825
22,000,000 YBN	559) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Proconsulidae (extinct) Subfamily: Proconsulinae (extinct) Genus: Proconsul (extinct) detail: Note there is a descrepancy between s39 and , showing Proconsul, in Tribe Pongini, closely related to Pongo (Orangutan). Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson & Slightom, 1990:265 Genus †Dryopithecus Lartet, 1856 Genus †Kamoyapithecus M.G. Leakey et al., 1995 Genus †Proconsul Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Limnopithecus Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Kalepithecus Harrison, 1988 Genus †Platodontopithecus Gu & Lin, 1983 Genus Pongo™ Lacépède, 1799 - orangutan Genus †Ramapithecus Lewis, 1934 Genus †Equatorius Ward et al., 1999 Genus †Kenyapithecus L. Leakey, 1962a Genus †Micropithecus Fleagle & Simons, 1978 Genus †Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987
22,000,000 YBN	560) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Proconsulidae (extinct) Subfamily: Proconsulinae (extinct) Genus: Proconsul (extinct) detail: Note there is a descrepancy between s39 and , showing Proconsul, in Tribe Pongini, closely related to Pongo (Orangutan). Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family †Pliopithecidae Zapfe, 1960 Subfamily †Propliopithecinae (Straus, 1961) Delson & Andrews, 1975 Genus †Aegyptopithecus Simons, 1965 Genus †Propliopithecus™ Schlosser, 1916
21,000,000 YBN	529) New World Monkeys: Night (or Owl) monkeys evolve.
21,000,000 YBN	530) New World Monkeys: Tamarins {TaMariNZ} and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS} evolve.
21,000,000 YBN	556) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Griphopithecidae (extinct) Genus: Kenyapithecus (extinct) detail: Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson & Slightom, 1990:265 Genus †Dryopithecus Lartet, 1856 Genus †Kamoyapithecus M.G. Leakey et al., 1995 Genus †Proconsul Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Limnopithecus Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Kalepithecus Harrison, 1988 Genus †Platodontopithecus Gu & Lin, 1983 Genus Pongo™ Lacépède, 1799 - orangutan Genus †Ramapithecus Lewis, 1934 Genus †Equatorius Ward et al., 1999 Genus †Kenyapithecus L. Leakey, 1962a Genus †Micropithecus Fleagle & Simons, 1978 Genus †Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987
20,000,000 YBN	549)
20,000,000 YBN	561)
18,000,000 YBN	537)	South-East Asia
16,000,000 YBN	555) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Family: Oreopithecidae Genus: Oreopithecus Species: O. bambolii (Gervais, 1872) Note that there is a serious descrepancy between the one view that has oreopithecus as closely related to Oragutans and as having Oreopithecus not in Superfamily Cercopithecoidea, family Hominidae, or subfamily Homininae, or Tribe Pongini, where Pongo (oragutans) are. Note that Lufengpithecus is in Pongini. detail: Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Family †Parapithecidae Schlosser, 1911 Subfamily †Oreopithecinae (Schwalbe, 1915) McKenna & Bell, 1997:341 Genus †Nyanzapithecus Harrison, 1987 Genus †Oreopithecus™ Gervais, 1872
15,000,000 YBN	553) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson & Slightom, 1990:265 Genus †Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987 detail: Note that Lufengpithecus is in the same Tribe as Orangutans. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson & Slightom, 1990:265 Genus †Dryopithecus Lartet, 1856 Genus †Kamoyapithecus M.G. Leakey et al., 1995 Genus †Proconsul Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Limnopithecus Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Kalepithecus Harrison, 1988 Genus †Platodontopithecus Gu & Lin, 1983 Genus Pongo™ Lacépède, 1799 - orangutan Genus †Ramapithecus Lewis, 1934 Genus †Equatorius Ward et al., 1999 Genus †Kenyapithecus L. Leakey, 1962a Genus †Micropithecus Fleagle & Simons, 1978 Genus †Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987
14,000,000 YBN	542) (Determine if the orangutan gene(s) for orange colored hair is the same as that for orange hair in humans, and trace the origin of the other hair colors and types (curly, etc).)	South-East Asia
13,000,000 YBN	551) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Dryopithecidae (extinct) Genus: Dryopithecus (extinct) (Lartet, 1856) detail: and agree, very close to orangutan. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson & Slightom, 1990:265 Genus †Dryopithecus Lartet, 1856 Genus †Kamoyapithecus M.G. Leakey et al., 1995 Genus †Proconsul Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Limnopithecus Hopwood, 1933 Genus †Kalepithecus Harrison, 1988 Genus †Platodontopithecus Gu & Lin, 1983 Genus Pongo™ Lacépède, 1799 - orangutan Genus †Ramapithecus Lewis, 1934 Genus †Equatorius Ward et al., 1999 Genus †Kenyapithecus L. Leakey, 1962a Genus †Micropithecus Fleagle & Simons, 1978 Genus †Lufengpithecus R. Wu, 1987
13,000,000 YBN	552) Detail: Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Genus †Morotopithecus Gebo et al., 1997 Genus †Pierolapithecus Moyà-Solà et al., 2004 Genus †Graecopithecus G. von Koenigswald, 1972 Genus †Langsonia Schwartz et al., 1995 Tribe Pongini (Elliot, 1913) Goodman, Tagle, Fitch, Bailey, Czelusniak, Koop, Benson & Slightom, 1990:265 Tribe †Gigantopithecini (Gremyatskii, 1960) Delson, 1977:450 Tribe Hominini™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P. Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441
10,500,000 YBN	538) Gibbons: Crested Gibbons evolve.	South-East Asia
10,000,000 YBN	533) Old World Monkeys: Colobus {KoLiBeS} monkeys (Old World Monkey) evolve.	Africa
10,000,000 YBN	534) Old World Monkeys:: Langurs {LoNGURZ} and Proboscis monkeys (Old World Monkey) evolve.	Asia
10,000,000 YBN	535) Old World Monkeys: Guenons {GenONZ} evolve.
10,000,000 YBN	536) Old World Monkeys: Macaques, Baboons, Mandrills evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Subtribe: Papionina
9,000,000 YBN	550)
7,750,000 YBN	539) Gibbons: Siamangs {SEumANGZ} evolve.	South-East Asia
7,000,000 YBN	469)
7,000,000 YBN	543) Hominids: Gorillas evolve in Africa. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Ponginae (Elliot, 1912) Genus: Gorilla (I. Geoffroy, 1852) (Determine if silver coloring on male ape is from a process similar to graying of hair due to aging or is some other process, for example, of coloration.)	Africa
7,000,000 YBN	565) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Hominina Genus: Sahelanthropus (Brunet et al, 2002) Species: S. tchadensis (Brunet et al, 2002)
6,100,000 YBN	566) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Hominina Genus: Orrorin (Senut et al, 2001) Species: O. tugenensis
6,000,000 YBN	540) Gibbons: Hylobates {HIlOBATEZ} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	541) Gibbons: Hoolocks {HUleKS} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	544)	Africa
6,000,000 YBN	1490)	Argentina
5,800,000 YBN	569) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Genus: Ardipithecus (White, 1994)
5,000,000 YBN	554) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Ponginae Genus: Gigantopithecus von Koenigswald, 1935 " Sometime near the end of the middle Pleistocene, perhaps 200,000 years ago, Gigantopithecus became extinct. The animal had flourished for at least six million years, quite a respectable figure, but it went the way of a great many genera of every shape and size. At about the same time, the giant panda disappeared from much of its original territory, notably insular southeast Asia, until it now survives only in the cold upland regions of Sichuan Province. The best guess as to what caused the panda's extinction in Southeast Asia is human hunting: even now the animal is hunted for food and for pelts, despite the best efforts of the Chinese government to discourage the practice. Similarly, human hunting may have led to the demise of Gigantopithecus." "Enviro nmental change may also have been a contributing factor, just as the bamboo die-off in China in the 1970s nearly wiped out the remaining population of giant pandas, with fewer than a thousand estimated to have survived. Or by eating the tender bamboo shoots and exploiting the plant for other purposes, including toolmaking, humans may have outcompeted the giant ape for this critical resource. The competition from both humans and the giant panda may have been too much." detail: Note that Gigantopithecus has been given it's own tribe in the subfamily Homininae, different from Pongini (Oragutans), and Hominini (Gorillas, Chimps, Humans). Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe †Gigantopithecini (Gremyatskii, 1960) Delson, 1977:450 Genus †Gigantopithecus™ von Koenigswald, 1935 †Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis †Gigantopithecus blacki †Gigantopithecus giganteus (Pilgrim, 1915)
4,400,000 YBN	546)	Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya, Africa
4,000,000 YBN	445)	Sterkfontein, South Africa
4,000,000 YBN	547) Hominid: Australopithecus (x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS} evolves in Africa. Australopithecus afarensis or anamensis?. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Genus: Australopithecus (R.A. Dart, 1925) detail: Note that australopithecus is one of 9 Genera (which includes Pan {chimps}, and Homo {humans}) all in subtribe Himinina. So one of these 8 other Genera must be the closest ancestor to Homo. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Hominini™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P. Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Subtribe Hominina™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P. Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Genus Pan Oken, 1816:xi - chimpanzees Genus †Sahelanthropus Brunet et al., 2002 Genus †Orrorin Senut et al., 2001 Genus †Ardipithecus White et al., 1995 Genus †Praeanthropus Genus †Australopithecus R.A. Dart, 1925 Genus †Kenyanthropus (M.G. Leakey et al., 2001) Genus †Paranthropus Broom, 1938 Genus Homo™ Linnaeus, 1758 - people	Sterkfontein, South Africa
3,700,000 YBN	570)
3,500,000 YBN	568) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Hominina Genus: Kenyanthropus Species: †Kenyanthropus platyops (Leakey et al., 2001)
3,390,000 YBN	269)	Dikika, Ethiopia
3,180,000 YBN	571)
3,000,000 YBN	446)
2,700,000 YBN	564) It is interesting to know that Paranthropus shared the earth with some early examples of the Homo genus, such as H. habilis, H. ergaster, and possibly even H. erectus. Australopithecus afarensis and A. anamenis had, for the most part, disappeared by this time. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Paranthropus Broom, 1938	Africa
2,500,000 YBN	447)	Africa
2,500,000 YBN	455)	Gona, Ethiopia
2,400,000 YBN	827)
2,000,000 YBN	545) Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ} and Common Chimpanzee line splits in Africa. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Paninina Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816)	Africa
1,800,000 YBN	130) Start Quaternary period (1.8 mybn-now), end Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn).
1,800,000 YBN	563)	Africa
1,800,000 YBN	826)
1,700,000 YBN	449)
1,500,000 YBN	562)
1,500,000 YBN	583)	(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South Africa
1,440,000 YBN	448) The possibility exists that, like chimpanzees might more closely resemble the human-chimp ancestor than humans, a line from eretus evolved into habilis, while eretus continued to survive in a more conserved form just as we still see and live at the same time with many surviving distant ancestors in the other species.	Kenya, Africa
1,000,000 YBN	589)
1,000,000 YBN	1479) This species this tooth comes from is thought to be Homo antecessor, which some think are either the same as or ancestors of Homo heidelbergensis. Some people group heidelbergensis with Homo ergaster, hominids with larger brains than Homo erectus, however some argue that heidelbergensis has a larger brain than ergaster.	Madrid, Spain
970,000 YBN	200)	Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK
790,000 YBN	584) Second most early evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus, Homo ergaster, or archaic Homo sapiens The oldest evidence dates back 1 to 1.5 million years before now from Swartkrans Cave in South Africa. Second most early evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus, Homo ergaster, or archaic Homo sapiens The presence of burned seeds, wood, and flint at the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya`aqov in Israel is suggestive of the control of fire by humans nearly 790,000 years ago. The distribution of the site's small burned flint fragments suggests that burning occurred in specific spots, possibly indicating hearth locations. Wood of six taxa was burned at the site, at least three of which are edible-olive, wild barley, and wild grape. (Was this by Homo ergaster or a more modern?)	Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel
400,000 YBN	615)	Schöningen, Germany.
200,000 YBN	548)	Ethiopia, Africa
200,000 YBN	590)
195,000 YBN	161)
190,000 YBN	595)
190,000 YBN	600) The "s" sound may instill that fear in people in order to evoke the typical meaning of silence (which is found in all major human groups) {check}. Maybe this relates to the usefullness of sounds in hunting trips in fields where snakes might be seen and immitated (similar to other mammals...prairie dogs?).
170,000 YBN	592)
160,000 YBN	591)
150,000 YBN	601) This "short duration" language, means communication must have been very routine and optimized, which implies that this happened either through hunting or in particular trading where langauge would be essential.
130,000 YBN	450) Neanderthals evolve from Homo ergaster (African Homo erectus) in Europe and Western Asia. Oldest Neanderthal fossil in Croatia. Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been compared to sapiens and a common ancestor of the two is estimated to be 500,000, long before the oldest sapien fossils in Africa, which supports the idea that sapiens did not evolve or interbreed with Neanderthals. By 130,000 years ago, after a long period of independent evolution in Europe, Neanderthals are so anatomically different from homo ergaster that they are best classified as a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis. This is a classical example of geographic isolation leading to a speciation event. Neanderthals and early sapiens living at this time both are characterized by: # a virtual lack of tools fashioned out of bone, antler or ivory # burials lack grave goods and signs of ritual or ceremony # hunting is usually limited to less dangerous species and evidence for fishing is absent # population densities are apparently low # no evidence of living structures exist and fireplaces are rudimentary # evidence for art or decoration is also lacking	Europe and Western Asia
120,000 YBN	572)
100,000 YBN [98000 BC]	257)	Africa
95,000 YBN [93000 BC]	594)
92,000 YBN [90000 BC]	597)	(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel
60,000 YBN [58000 BC]	573) Oldest evidence of humans in Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra Furada, Brazil. The evidence is controversial. Some people argue that the chipped stones are geoartifacts, but the artifact finders argue that the chips are too regular to be made from falling rocks.
53,300 YBN [51300 BC]	557) Homo Erectus extinct. Most recent Homo Erectus fossil in Southeast Asia (Java). This shows that Homo erectus lived at the same time as Homo sapiens. These ages are 20,000 to 400,000 years younger than previous age estimates for these hominids and indicate that H. erectus may have survived on Java at least 250,000 years longer than on the Asian mainland, and perhaps 1 million years longer than in Africa.	Ngandong, Indonesia
46,000 YBN [44000 BC]	577)
43,000 YBN [41000 BC]	1187)	Swaziland, Africa
42,000 YBN [40000 BC]	596)
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	598)
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	604)	Southwest France
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	5871)	Hohle Fels Cave, Germany
38,000 YBN [36000 BC]	574)
35,000 YBN [33000 BC]	3943) Oldest known sculpture of the human form. This statue predates the well-known Venuses from the Gravettian culture by at least 5,000 years. The artefact is presumed to have been made by modern humans (Homo sapiens) even though Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) are present in Europe at this time.	Hohle Fels Cave, Germany
35,000 YBN [33000 BC]	4191) Oldest clothed body yet uncovered.	Russia
32,000 YBN [01/01/30000 BC]	1262)	Southern France
32,000 YBN [30000 BC]	602)	Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia
31,700 YBN [29700 BC]	42)	Goyet cave, Belgium
30,000 YBN [28000 BC]	575) Mitochondrial DNA shows a sapiens migration to the Americas now.
30,000 YBN [28000 BC]	599)
29,000 YBN [27000 BC]	6215)	Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia
28,000 YBN [26000 BC]	451)	Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain
26,000 YBN [24000 BC]	6224)	Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech Republic
23,000 YBN [21000 BC]	6231)	(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece
20,000 YBN [18000 BC]	576) Y Chromosome DNA shows a sapiens migration to the Americas now.
20,000 YBN [18000 BC]	1291)	in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern Argolid, is a cave overlooking the Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village of Koilada.
19,000 YBN [17000 BC]	6184)	Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia)
18,000 YBN [16000 BC]	603)	(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan Province, China
17,000 YBN [15000 BC]	6225)	Lascaux, France
14,000 YBN [12000 BC]	6227) Oldest known map.	Mezhirich, Ukraine
13,000 YBN [11000 BC]	578)	Mexico City and Arlington Canyon on Santa Rosa Island, California, USA
13,000 YBN [11000 BC]	579) Very different from native anatomy, closest comparison is Ainu of Japan.
12,500 YBN [10500 BC]	582)
11,500 YBN [9500 BC]	581)
11,500 YBN [9500 BC]	719)	Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan provinces), China
11,130 YBN [9130 BC]	1292)	=9130BCE
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	606)	Jericho, (modern West Bank) Palestine
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	617) Goats kept, fed, milked, and killed for food.	Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori, Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh (10,000).
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	1290)	Pangmapha district, Mae Hong Son Province, northwest Thailand
10,700 YBN [8700 BC]	829) Humans shape metal objects. Oldest copper (and metal) artifact, from Northern Iraq. This starts the "Copper Age" (Chalcolithic). This is a copper ear ring. Copper is the first metal shaped by humans. (verify)	Northern Iraq
10,500 YBN [8500 BC]	6315) Sheep raised for wool, skins, meat and dung (for fuel).	Northern Zagros to southeastern Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern Mediterranean
10,350 YBN [8350 BC]	828)
10,000 YBN [01/01/8000 BC]	1259)	Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	205) Pigs raised and killed for food.	(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean and Island South East Asia|southeastern Anatolia
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	614)	Stellmoor (near Hamburg), Germany
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	6233) Stone wall constructed in Jericho. Jericho was first inhabited, perhaps around 9000bce. By about 8000 bce the inhabitants of Jericho have grown into an organized community capable of building a massive stone wall around the settlement, strengthened at one point at least by a massive stone tower. The size of this settlement justifies the use of the term town and suggests a population of some 2,000–3,000 persons. So this 1,000 years saw a movement from a hunting way of life to full settlement. The development of agriculture can be inferred from this, and grains of cultivated types of wheat and barley have been found, providing evidence of very early agriculture. To provide enough land for cultivation, it is highly probable that irrigation is also invented here. Kathleen Kenyon excavated Jericho from 1952-8 and desribes the area like this: "Overlying the natural gravel, Stage I of the occupation in this area was marked by some slight traces of the Proto-Neolithic stage, with no evidence of solid structures. ...In Stage II solid structures appear. Very little of them survived within the area excavated, but they appear to consist of the normal round houses of Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. The expansion of the occupied area therefore does not long precede the stage at which solid houses appear. This stage likewise does not precede the construction of the defences. Only one phase of buildings could be identified as earlier than Stage III, which is the first period of the defences. The earliest defences consisted of a free-standing town wall, TW. I, solidly built of stone, 1.8 m. wide at the base, and surviving to a height of 3.65 m. Against the inner side of this was built the first stage of the towere, which formed the core of the later stages. The base of the core was circular in plan, but the curve flattens to join the wall at right angles; the summit was, however, circular, with a diameter of c. 7 m. The surviving height in 7.75 m. The tower was solidly built of stone, with, in its centre, a staircase leading down to a passage that gives access to the top of the tower from inside the town. The construction of passage and staircase is remarkably solid, with a roof of large slabs hammer-dressed to a flat surface. The purpose of the staircase is presumably to provide for the manning of the top of the tower, which, from its circular plan, was built separately from the town wall, and may have over-topped it. The whole is a most remarkable piece of military planning, and its date must be in ht eneighbourhood of 8000 B.C., since a Carbon-14 dating of 7825 B.C. was obtained for Stage IV, phase iii. In the first stage of the defences the area round the tower and against the town wall was open. Only in the extreme south-east corner of the area excavated in Sauare D I was the edge of a contemporary house cleared, one that had existed in the preceding stage and continued in use now. In Stage IV a number of enclosures were built up against the tower and town wall. These are quite unlike the houses of the period, and have vertical walls surviving to a height of 3.12 m. without any visible doorways. The wall of the enclosure to the east of the tower was built across the entrance to the passage, but access was still provided by a trap-door-like aperture over the top of the wall. The enclosures to the north and east of the tower have a filling showing a number of silt lines, and the two enclosures to the north of the tower are linked by an aperture through which run lines of water-laid silt. It is therefore reasonably certain that these enclosures were water-tanks. ...". Interestingly some skulls from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) area, dating to around 7000BCE, have been remodeled into the shape of human faces with plaster of Paris, and painted. (Determine if the staircase in the tower is the earliest known stair and/or staircase.)	Jericho (modern West Bank)
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	6316) Cow raised for milk, meat and for plowing.	upper Euphrates Valley
9,300 YBN [7300 BC]	6185)	southeastern Turkey and northern Syria
9,240 YBN [7240 BC]	1478)	Paiján, Peru
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	273)	Çayönü, Turkey
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	1288)
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	1289)	Iraq
8,600 YBN [6600 BC]	848)	Jiahu, in central China's Henan Province
8,410 YBN [6410 BC]	580) Like Spirit Caveman, very different from native anatomy, closest comparison is Ainu of Japan.
8,200 YBN [6200 BC]	1295)	Catal Huyuk
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	605) Oldest known boat, the Pesse canoe, a dug-out boat.	Netherlands
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	607)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	608)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	609)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	610)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	612)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	613)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	616)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	6220) Earliest drum. Giant frame drums are used in the temples of ancient Sumer. Mesopotamian objects from about 3000 bce depict frame drums and small cylindrical drums played horizontally and vertically. Early Egyptian artifacts (c. 4000 bce) show a drum with skins stretched by a network of thongs. Mesopotamian art works show at least four types of drums: 1) shallow or frame drums of all sizes, 2) a small cylindrical drum held in a horizontal position, 3) a large drum played with foot, and 4) a small drum with one head, carried vertically on a belt and struck with both hands.	Moravia, Czeck Republic
7,300 YBN [5300 BC]	626)	south Iraq, shore of Persian Gulf
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	618)
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	619)
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	620)
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	627)	Belovode, Eastern Serbia
6,900 YBN [4900 BC]	648) Oldest evidence of sail boat.	Mesopotamia
6,500 YBN [01/01/4500 BC]	1263)	Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia)
6,500 YBN [4500 BC]	1293)	Nabta, Egypt
6,250 YBN [4250 BC]	720) Earliest evidence of Corn (maize) grown in Americas.	Oaxaca, Mexico
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	830)	Egpyt
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	1061)	Ukraine
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	6232) Mud brick, dried in the sun, is one of the first building materials. Before sun-dried bricks, perhaps mud deposited by a river could be used to shape into huts or building units for protection from the weather. In the ancient city of Ur, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), the first true arch of sun-baked brick is made about 4000 BCE. The arch itself has not survived, but a description of it includes the first known reference to mortars other than mud. A bitumen mixture is used to bind the bricks together. Burned brick can be produced simply by containing a fire with mud bricks.	Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
5,800 YBN [3800 BC]	6235)	Harran, Mesopotamia
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	621)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	622)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	623)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	625) Donkey kept, fed and used to transport. Perhaps the donkey also provided food in times of starvation.
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	630)	Lydia, Anatolia
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	634)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	646)	Mesopotamia (and a similar pottery wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	1260)	Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	1285)	Harrapa
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	1296)	Uruk
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	6223)	China and Chaldea
5,490 YBN [3490 BC]	702) Earliest cotton grown.	Northwestern Peru|Indus valley
5,400 YBN [3400 BC]	913)
5,310 YBN [3310 BC]	704)	(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture) Bronocice, Krakow, Poland
5,300 YBN [01/01/3300 BC]	1261)	Sumer
5,250 YBN [3250 BC]	637) (Possibly this writing in columns is inherited and retained in the Chinese language which, like all written symbols, presumably is descended from the first writing.)
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	650)
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	1060)	Indus Valley
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	1266) The Egyptian language as represented by alphabetic hieroglyphs contains the |C| sound (chin), |J| (jaw), |KW| (queen), in addition to those of Sumerian and Akkadian.	Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	638)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	639)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	640)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	641)
5,000 YBN [01/01/3000 BC]	1265) The proto-cuneiform Sumarian script becomes phonetic (the sounds of symbols are combined to form words). This is the beginning of phonetic written language. Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for "arrow" that is now also defined as the Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which starts with the same sound. After this phonetic abstraction, the introduction of syllabograms (symbols that form syllables of multi-symbol words), names and words for which no symbols had existed can be created. For example, the symbol originally defined as the Summerian verb "bal" (to dig) can also be spelled with the syllabic signs "ba" + "al", while the Akkadian word for dig ("heru") sounds differently.(show image if possible) The vast majority of Sumerian language is made of one-syllable words. Perhaps all earlier spoken languages contained single-syllable words. This process of phonetic abstraction will be accelerated when the Semitic language Akkadian adopts the Sumerian script around 4800 YBN (2800 BCE), 200 years from now. Sumerian contains syllabic symbols, where a symbol represents a consonent and a vowel together such as /Bo/ (ball), or /Bv/ (put), although some vowel sounds have one symbol and are true letters. This writing will later be fully alphabetic when the consonents are represented by one symbol and the vowel at the end dropped. The Sumerian language is "agluttinative" as opposed to the Semitic language of the Akkadians. A base word may be connected with a prefix and a postfix (similar to modern Turkish). For example, son is |Dvmv|, sons is |Dvmv mes|, his sons is |Dvmv mes o ni| , 'for his sons' |Dvmv mes o ni iR|. The verb build is |DU|, he built |E DU| (or |mu DU|), 'he did not build' |nv mv DU|. Sumerian and the languages that follow in the 3000 year history of cuneiform, all have monophony (one sound has more than one symbol), and polyphony (many sounds may be represented by one symbol).	Jemdet Nasr
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	628) Oldest evidence of bronze (copper mixed with tin) melted, and casted. Figurines of men and women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are the oldest examples of true bronze (combination of copper and tin) known. They date to about 3000 B.C. The male figures were originally equipped as warriors, and the women were dressed with accessories of precious metal. They are the forerunners of later figurines of gods who were "dressed" in gold and silver.	Tell Judaidah, Turkey|Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	645)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	647)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	649)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	651)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	653)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	664)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	665)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	666)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	668)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	669)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	670)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	671)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	672)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	673)	Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	674)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	675)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	676)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	1268) The Proto-Elamite language, still undeciphered, is pressed into tablets to represent the language of Elam in modern southwest Iran. Because 1,500 signs have been recorded, Proto-Elamite is probably logographic (each sign represents a unique word similar to Chinese writing). Some of the symbols of the Indus Valley script resemble those of the Proto-Elamite script.	modern southwest Iran
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6219)	Sumer (modern Iraq)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6222)	Egypt?
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6226)	Mesopotamia
4,980 YBN [2980 BC]	654) Imhotep (flourished 2980-2950 BCE), the first scientist of history, is credited with being the designer of the "step pyramid", the earliest of the Egyptian pyramids. Imhotep was one of the officials of the Pharaoh Djosèr (3rd Dynasty), designed the Pyramid of Djzosèr (Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture. His name means the one who comes in peace. Imhotep is the first name of history, if correctly pronounced that uses the "i" and "e" sounds. At least clear proof that these sounds were in use by this time.	Sakkara, Egypt
4,925 YBN [2925 BC]	643)
4,800 YBN [2800 BC]	629)
4,800 YBN [2800 BC]	1276)	Sumer, Uruk, Kish,
4,750 YBN [2750 BC]	320) Earliest saw.	Mesopotamia
4,600 YBN [01/01/2600 BC]	1258)	Sumer
4,600 YBN [2600 BC]	1269) He is also mentioned in a section of the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh and Aga of Kish, as the father of Aga who laid siege to Uruk. The king list and the Tummal chronicle both agree with the epic in making him the father of Aga, last of the dynasty at Kish, for whom inscriptions have also been found. Hence the fragments authenticating their existence have generally been supposed as also authenticating Gilgamesh as a historical king of Uruk.	Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of modern Bagdad
4,600 YBN [2600 BC]	1271)	Sumer
4,550 YBN [2550 BC]	1069)	Egypt
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	677)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	688)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	689) First animal and vegetable dyes.
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	690)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	691)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	692)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	1052)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	6230) Earliest dice and boardgame. There is a claim of earlier dice and boardgame from Iran (see image of dice - but there is no image of the actual board). In the 1920's, the Royal Cemetery of Ur excavations, directed by Leonard Woolley, excavated the tombs of the mid-3rd millennium (2000s) BCE kings and queens of the city of Ur, famed in the Bible as the home of Biblical patriarch, Abraham. The tombs date to the period known as Early Dynastic IIIA (2600-2500 BCE), a high point in the history of Sumerian culture. Woolley uncovered several game boards and pieces in the Royal Cemetery at Ur. One board has inlaued red limestone and lapis lazuli. The board has twenty squares made of shell: Five squares each have flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled dots. The remaining five squares have various designs of five dots. According to references in ancient documents, two players compete to race their pieces from one end of the board to another. Pieces are allowed on to the board at the beginning only with specific throws of the dice. The rosette spaces are lucky. The boards appear to have been hollow with the pieces stored inside. Dice, either stick dice or tetrahedral in shape, were also found. According to the British museum, examples of this 'Game of Twenty Squares' date from about 3000 BC to the first millennium AD and are found widely from the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to India. A version of the Mesopotamian game survived within the Jewish community at Cochin, South India until modern times. A similar board game, called "Senet" dates to around the same time. Historically, senet makes it first known appearance in the Third Dynasty mastaba or tomb of Hesy-re, the overseer of the royal scribes of King Djoser at Saqqara, dating to approximately 2686 BC. Unidentified senet-like boards have also been found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials at Abydos and Saqqara and date to about 3500-3100 BC. These and a number of First Dynasty (3100 BC) senet board hieroglyphics indicate that the game may be even older.	Ur, Mesopotamia
4,407 YBN [2407 BC]	800)
4,400 YBN [2400 BC]	915) The range of these texts is 2400-1800 BCE.
4,400 YBN [2400 BC]	1277)	Sumer, Lagash, Umma
4,300 YBN [2300 BC]	667)	Mesopotamia
4,200 YBN [2200 BC]	1294)	Lima, Peru
4,130 YBN [2130 BC]	6234) Earliest evidence of horn used as musical instrument. Historian Curt Sachs writes: "Several inscriptions of the Sumerian priest-king Gudea mention an instrument, si-im, alongside with the temple drums, a-lal and balag. As si (Akkadian qarnu) means 'horn,' and im 'wind,' there is little doubt that this was a blowing horn. One of the Carchemish reliefs in the British Museum, dating from about 1250 B.C. depicts a rather short and thick horn played together with a large frame drum which...corresponds either to the a-lal or to the balag. From Gudea's time on (c2130 BCE), the si is occasionally mentioned; some texts add the metal determinative and some refer to horns made of gold. ...". The oldest survivng animal horn is from around 2300 BC, from a deep bog in Visnum, Sweden. It is a cow horn, dated from the late Iron Age, and has five finger holes. (verify) A list of the presents offered by King Tushratta to King Amenophis IV of Egypt around 1400 BC contains a list of forty horns, all covered with gold and some studded with precious stones. Seventeen of them are called ox horns. The rest of the horns are probably not straight trumpets since straight trumpets are more often made of gold instead of covered with gold. The earliest specimen of a silver trumpet is from the tomb of Tutankhamen (1300s bce).	Lagash, Mesopotamia
4,100 YBN [2100 BC]	1279)	Nippur
4,050 YBN [2050 BC]	1278)	Ur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	703)	China
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	705)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	706)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	707)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	708)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	710)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	711)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	733)	Nineveh
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	1273) The fall of the Ur II empire as the result of an Elmite raid results in the accidental burial of huge archives in the ruins of Umma, Puzrish-Dagan and Girsu.	Ur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	1283)	Nippur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	1286)	Nippur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	5860)	Nippur, Babylonia (now Iraq) (verify)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6236)	Babylonia
3,842 YBN [1842 BC]	712) First all phonetic language and alphabet. Proto-semitic alphabet made in turquoise mines probably by Semitic humans. This alphabet is thought to have replaced cuneiform, and may be root of all other alphabets. This first strictly phonetic alphabet is in use until 1797 BCE. Encyclopedia Britannica states that the evolution of the alphabet involves two important achievements. The first step is the invention of an all-consonant writing system. The second is the invention of characters for representing vowels which is made by Greek people between 800 and 700 bce. Around this time the Egyptians have a large-scale project to search for turquoise in the high mountains of southern Sinai, at a site today called Serabit el-Khadem. The credit for first noticing an unusual inscription in Serabit goes to Hilda Petrie, wife of the famous Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, who was leading an archaeological expedition to Serabit in 1905. Hilda Petrie called attention to some fallen stones on the ground by one of the mines, bearing several signs that seem not to be real hieroglyphs. Then more of these inscriptions began turning up on rocks by the turquoise mines, and even inside the mines. However, only two small statues and a sphinx bore inscriptions in this strange new script. Petrie studied these crude inscriptions and observed that they appeared to be a kind of imitation of hieroglyphic signs, but the quantity of signs was very small. Petrie ingeniously identified these awkward signs as an alphabetic script, different from the Egyptian hieroglyphic system with its hundreds of signs. Yet Petrie was unable to read these strange inscriptions. In 1916, some ten years later, Sir Alan Gardiner, the famous English Egyptologist, noticed a group of four signs that was frequently repeated in these unusual inscriptions. Gardiner correctly identified the repetitive group of signs as a series of four letters in an alphabetic script that represented a word in a Canaanite language: b-‘-l-t, vocalized as Baalat, "the Mistress". Gardiner suggested that Baalat was the Canaanite appellation for Hathor, the goddess of the turquoise mines. An important key to the decipherment was a unique bilingual inscription. It is inscribed on a small sphinx from the temple and features a short inscription in what appears to be parallel texts in Egyptian and in the new script. The Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription on the sphinx reads: "The beloved of Hathor, the mistress of turquoise." Each of the critical letters in the word Baalat is a picture—a house, an eye, an ox goad and a cross. Gardiner correctly saw that each pictograph has a single acrophonic value: The picture stands not for the depicted word but only for its initial sound. Thus the pictograph bêt, "house", drawn as the four walls of a dwelling represents only the initial consonant b. Baalat is written as shown in the drawing, in the blue highlighted areas (although the final "tav" is not legible in line A). This ingenious principle is at the root of all of our alphabetic systems. Each sign in this script stands for one consonant in the language. (Vowels were not represented. The representation of vowels came later). The alphabet was invented in this way by Canaanites at Serabit in the Middle Bronze Age, in the middle of the 19th century B.C.E., probably during the reign of Amenemhet III of the XIIth Dynasty.	(Caanan modern:) Palestine|(turquoise mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai Peninsula
3,800 YBN [1800 BC]	713)
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	715)
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	1280)	Nippur
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	1281)	Nippur and Ur, Sumer
3,650 YBN [1650 BC]	716)
3,595 YBN [01/01/1595 BC]	1274) The Hittite raid on Babylon that results in the collapse of the First Dynasty of babylon leaves large libraries of clay tablets in Larsa and Sippar that will be excavated in modern times.	Babylon
3,552 YBN [1552 BC]	799)
3,550 YBN [1550 BC]	1282)	Sumer
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	624) Oldest oven-baked (burned) brick. A burned brick is a mud brick that been baked in an oven (kiln) at an elevated temperature to harden it, give it mechanical strength, and improve its resistance to moisture.	Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	721)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	722)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	723)	Nimroud, Assyria
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	724)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	725)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	726)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	727)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	1516) According to strict orthodox Hindu interpretation the Vedas are apauruṣeya ("not human compositions"), being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard"). Hinduism, sometimes known as Sanatana Dharma ("Eternal Law"), refers to this belief in the ageless nature of the wisdom it embodies. Philosophies and sects that develop in the Indian subcontinent take differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Two other Indian philosophies, Buddhism and Jainism, do not accept the authority of the Vedas and evolve into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-Vedic" (nāstika) schools. Vedism is the polytheistic sacrificial religion that exists at the time the Vedas are initially created. Vedism is very different from its successor, Hinduism. Vedism involves the worship of numerous male divinities who are connected with the sky and natural phenomena. The priests who officiate at this worship are known as Brahmans. The complex Vedic ceremonies, for which the hymns of the Rigveda are composed, center on the ritual sacrifice of animals and with the pressing and drinking of a sacred intoxicating liquor called soma. The basic Vedic rite is performed by offering these edibles to a sacred fire, and this fire, which is itself deified as Agni, carries these items to the gods of the Vedic pantheon. The god of highest rank is Indra, a warlike god who conquers innumerable human and demon enemies and even vanquishes the sun, among other epic feats. Another great deity is Varuna, who is the upholder of the cosmic and moral laws. Vedism, the religion in India at this time, has many other lesser deities, among whom are gods, demigods, and demons. Soma is made from the stalks of a plant (hypothesized to be a psychedelic mushroom, cannabis, Peganum harmala, Blue lotus, or ephedra) are pressed between stones, and the juice is filtered through sheep's wool and then mixed with water and milk. After first being offered to the gods, the remainder of the soma is consumed by the priests and the sacrificer. In this time, soma is highly valued for its exhilarating, probably hallucinogenic, effect. The personified deity Soma is the "master of plants," the healer of disease, and the bestower of riches. The hymns in the Veda praise the hereditary deities, who, for the most part personify various natural phenomena, such as fire (Agni), sun (Surya and Savitr), dawn (Usas), storms (the Rudras), war and rain (Indra), honour (Mitra), divine authority (Varuna), and creation (Indra, with some aid of Vishnu). Hymns are composed to these deities, and many are recited or chanted during rituals. The Rig-Veda is the oldest significant extant Indian text. It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities. The religion reflected in the Rigveda is a polytheism mainly concerned with the appeasing of divinities associated with the sky and the atmosphere. Important dieties are gods such as Indra, Varuna (guardian of the cosmic order), Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Surya (the Sun). The books of tghe Rigveda are composed by sages and poets from different priestly groups over a period of at least 500 years, which Avari dates as 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier According to Max Müller, based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700-1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent. Michael Witzel believes that the Rig Veda must have been composed more or less in the period 1450-1350 BCE. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo culture of ca. 2000 BCE, when the earliest horse-drawn chariots have been found (at Sintashta, near the Ural mountains). Two representative democratic institutions, called the Sabha and the Samiti are mentioned in the Rigveda. The Sabha (literaly"assembly" in Sanskrit) is widely interpreted to be the assembly of the tribe or the important chieftains of the tribe, while the Samiti seems to be the gathering of all the men of the tribe, convened only for very special occasions. The Sabha and the Samiti keep check on the powers of the king, and are given a semi-divine status in the Rigveda as the "daughters of the Hindu deity Prajapati" After the record of the assembly formed in the Sumerian version of the epic of Gilgamesh, this represents the oldest reference to a representative democratic within a government. The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial formulas") consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose is practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it applies to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma offering. The Sama-Veda is the "Veda of chants" or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word sāman which means a metrical hymn or song of praise. This veda consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda. Some of the Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than once. The Sama-Veda serves as a songbook for the "singer" priests. A priest who sings hymns from the Sama-Veda during a ritual is called an udgātṛ, a word derived from the Sanskrit root ud-gai ("to sing" or "to chant"). The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the {atharvans} (and Angirasa)". The Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa' poets. The meaning of the word "Atharvan" is unclear, but Atharvan may mean priests who worshipped fire. The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has 760 hymns, and about one-sixth of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda. Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose. The Atharva-Veda will be compiled around 900 BCE, and is generally thought to be the latest of the four texts, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rig Veda, and apparently some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda. Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvana-Veda has less connection with sacrifice. Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, and for long life. The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns. The famous mantra Om (ॐ) first appears in the Atharva-Veda, and later will be identified with absolute reality (brahman) in the Taittitrīya Upanishad. In its third section, the Atharvaveda contains Mantras used in marriage and death rituals, as well as those for kingship, female rivals and the Vratya (in Brahmana style prose). The word "veda" will come to mean not only the four Vedas themselves, but the commentaries on them too. These include the Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas of the period between c.100 BCE until c.800 BCE; the UpaniṢads, compiled between 800 and 500 BCE; and various sūtras (see Sūtras) and Vedāṇgas. The entire body of the Veda literature seems to have been preserved orally. Even today several of these works, notably the three oldest Vedas, are recited with subtleties of intonation and rhythm that have been handed down from the early days of Vedic religion in India. The rites of Vedic sacrifice are relatively simple in the early period, when the Rigveda is written down. In addition to soma, edibles such as meat, butter, milk, and barley cake could also be offered to a sacred fire. Animal sacrifice-the killing of a ram-existed either independently or as an integral part of the sacrifice of soma. The celebrated ashvamedha, or "horse-sacrifice," are an elaborate variant of the soma sacrifice. Human sacrifice (purushamedha) is described and alluded to as a former practice but may have been more symbolic than actual. The sacrifice of the mythical giant Purusha, from whose dismembered limbs sprang up the four major castes, may serve as a model for the conjectured human sacrifices. Other ceremonies mark fixed dates of the lunar calendar, such as the full or new moon or the change of seasons.	India
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6228)	Egypt
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6229)	Nippur, Mesopotamia
3,358 YBN [1358 BC]	2727) In the fifth year of his reign Amenhotep IV dramatically alters Egyptian society and religion, introducing a new style of art and the concept of monotheism. In this year Amenhotep changes his name Amenhotep ("Amon Is Satisfied") to Akhenaton ("One Useful to Aton") and moves his ca