TIME	EVENT DESCRIPTION	LOCATION
UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN	1) We are a tiny part of a universe that is made of an infinite amount of space, matter and time. It is important to say that I reject the theory that the universe is expanding and started with a single explosion or "big bang" because the main piece of evidence for this, the "red-shift" of the position of spectral lines of other galaxies which was explained first by Slipher as being due to a difference in light source velocity (Doppler effect) is more accurately explained mostly as a difference in light source distance by the Bragg equation for a reflection (diffraction) grating.
990,000,000,000 YBN	2) There is more space than matter.
980,000,000,000 YBN	3) The basic order of matter from smaller to largest is light particles, electrons, positrons, muons, protons, neutrons, atoms, molecules, living objects, planets, stars, globular clusters, galaxies, galactic clusters. It is important to state that, I argue that the definition of the term "photon" perhaps should be changed to refer to an individual material light particle, what Isaac Newton called a "corpuscle", as opposed to a quantum of photons which represents the time-independent energy of a specific frequency of light.
970,000,000,000 YBN	11) The universe has no start or end. The same light particles that have always been, continue to move in the space that has always been.
960,000,000,001 YBN	5) Matter and motion can never be created or destroyed. Matter can never be converted into motion, and motion can never be converted into matter. Light particles are moved by gravity, which may be the result of particle collision or an inherent action-at-a-distance force. Light particles may collide with each other and become trapped in locations of high photon density.
950,000,000,000 YBN	6) Light particles become trapped with each other and so form structures such as protons, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. This forming of light particles into atoms may be the result of particle collision, gravitation (an attraction of matter with itself) or a combination of both. That light particles may become trapped or tangled with each other, because of the limitation of movement in a densely filled space, may be the reason photons form Hydrogen, Hydrogen forming nebulas, nebulas forming stars, and stars forming galaxies.
940,000,000,000 YBN	7) Most of the galaxies in the universe we will never see because they are too far away for even 1 particle of light from them to be going in the exact direction of our tiny location, or are captured by atoms between here and there. One estimate has 70e21 (sextillion) stars in only the universe we can see. That is 10 times more stars than grains of sand on all the earth. When our telescopes are larger this number will increase again.
935,000,000,000 YBN	4) There is a pattern in the universe. Light particles move from highly dense volumes of space to volumes of less density. In low dense volumes, light particles slowly accumulate to form atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which exist as large gas clouds (like the Magellanic Clouds). These gas clouds, called nebuli continue to accumulate light particles and/or condense at points of high density where stars form and the cloud transitions to a galaxy of stars. The stars emit light particles back out to the rest of the universe, where they collect and form clouds again. Around each star are many planets and pieces of matter. On many of those planets living objects can copy. Living objects need matter in order to not decay. These living objects grow, forming matter into more copies of themselves, with the most successful organisms occupying and moving around many stars. These advanced organisms then move their star (or globular) cluster out of the plane of the spiral galaxy. As time continues, all of the stars of a galaxy are occupied by living objects who have organized their stars in globular clusters, and these globular clusters form a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy may then exist in a steady balance of light particles in and light particles out, taking in light particles to use as food and fuel, and emitting light particles in the process. So free light particles are trapped into volumes of space that grow in density first forming atoms, then gas clouds (nebuli), then stars (galaxies), and ultimately, if surviving to globular galaxies which may ultimately not be able to take in more light particles than are emitted. Perhaps light particles at this scale are stars or galaxies in some smaller scale of the universe, and stars or galaxies at this scale are light particles at a larger scale of the universe. It seems likely that globular galaxies compete with each other to try to trap and hold onto the most light particles possible. One goal is probably to maintain a surplus as opposed to a deficit of light particles. It may be that smaller globular galaxies may be consumed by the living objects of larger globular galaxies, or perhaps they may integrate into a larger globular galaxy. In globular galaxies, stars must eventually burn out all the time, and then be separated for food and fuel. The only source of new light particles are those captured at the boundary of the galaxy. Without some more dense collections of light particles, this source is probably not enough to equal the light output of a large globular galaxy. One great question is: do nebuli accumulate light particles as they turn into galaxies or do they simply compress some existing quantity of light particles, or both? For any given volume of space, there is a ratio of light particles going in versus light particles going out. If more light particles are entering than exiting the volume has a deficit of light particles, and so acts as a vacuum and grows in size, if more particles are exiting than entering, the volume is already very dense, has a surplus of light particles, and is losing density.
930,000,000,000 YBN	8)
165,000,000,000 YBN	13) The Milky Way Galaxy forms. Light particles get tangled and absorbed and the density of the volume of space where the Milky Way forms increases until dense centers form atoms, and then stars.The formation of a galaxy can be viewed as an empty volume of space that starts with a single light particle and slowly gains more and more light particles. As the number of light particles grows, protons and atoms are formed. As the gain in light particles continues, the first stars is created. If we imagine the growth of a galaxy from one light particle to a state of 500 billion stars as an exponential growth (for example the galaxy grows at 1% every million years), 84% of that time will be a galaxy too small to even form a single star, the other 16% will be the galaxy after its first star to 500 billion stars. Perhaps a nebula can be called a galaxy if it contains at least one point of density that emits light particles with visible frequency.
33,000,000,000 YBN	6180) The first star in the Milky Way Galaxy forms.
22,000,000,000 YBN	6181) Living objects in the Milky Way Galaxy reach another star using a ship. I am presuming that this occurs perhaps 5 billion years after the first star in the Milky Way Galaxy. Presumably the Milky Way Galaxy is mostly a nebula at this stage.
10,000,000,000 YBN	6182) The first globular cluster of 100,000 stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. These estimates are very uncertain. If we imagine that matter accumulates at a rate of 1% every billion years, then the first star forms in the Milky Way Nebula after 138 billion years. Presuming 5 billion years is needed to evolve living objects advanced enough to build ships to go to other stars puts this at 143 billion years after the first light particle of the Milky Way (and 22 billion years before now). If these living objects then colonize stars at 1% growth every billion years, forming a 100,000 star globular cluster would take 1e5=1.000000001^y y=12 billion years. This puts this achievement at 155 billion years after the theoretical first light particle of the Milky Way, and 10 billion years before the Milky Way has 500 billion stars - similar to the present state of the Milky Way.
5,500,000,000 YBN	16) The star earth will eventually rotate forms as a center of high photon density, perhaps from particles that accumulate in a nebula or in the remains of an dead star. It may take a very long time, perhaps even 5 billion years or more for the star and planets to condense and sweep up most of the remaining matter. This process increases the pressure inside stars and planets, while decreasing the average temperature around and at the surface of stars and planets. My opinion is that stars contain a solid center made of highly compressed unmoving light particles, in the middle, where there is more free space, atoms may form and there may be enough space for liquid to flow, as light particles get nearer to the surface where there is much more open space, free light particles, and atoms habe enough space to be viewed as being in a gas form as they escape the inside of the star. I view large planets as having the same basic structure as a star- but being composed of far fewer light particles. {check with supernova remnants} The density of the star the earth rotates is similar to that of a liquid. The most popular theory to explain how stars give off so many photons is that these photons exit as a result of Hydrogen atomically fusing into Helium, and I want to add my opinion that simply light particles being trapped inside a planet or star is enough to explain why photons are emitted from stars and planets. In addition, atoms like Hydrogen and Helium may be separated into their source photons. Perhaps the reaction is similar to the outer part (mantle) of the earth where red hot liquid iron emits photons. We obviously do not explain that red hot molten metal as being the result of nuclear fusion, and all those photons are clearly not the result of oxygen combustion- but may be because of many particles moving into the newly contacted empty space. Clearly there are many photons exiting stars every second, and each star is losing large amounts of matter in the form of photons. In addition, the most popular theory explains that most atoms heavier than Hydrogen and no heavier than Iron are made in stars, and atoms larger than iron can only be made in supernovae. But this seems obviously wrong when we see clearly that larger atoms can easily be built up at relatively cold temperatures by the simple bombardment of helium and carbon ions. These kinds of reactions may even occur at the surface of a star.
5,000,000,000 YBN	22) Heavier atoms in a star system move closer to the center and lighter atoms move farther out.
4,600,000,000 YBN	17) Planets form around our star. Like the star, they are red hot with liquid rock and metals on the surface. Lighter atoms move to the surface of the planets. Larger planets are surrounded by gas. As free moving matter is absorbed by the star and planets, the average temperature of the star system is lowered. As the temperature of the planets and moons decrease, water and other molecules condense and fall to the surface. (Probably the star and planets form at the same time.)
4,600,000,000 YBN	30) Moon of Earth is formed by 1 of 3 ways: 1) spherical planet collides with earth, moon forms from remaining matter in ring around earth. 2) spherical planet is caught in earth orbit (perhaps after a collision). 3) moon of earth forms naturally from original matter of star system in orbit around earth.
4,571,000,000 YBN	31) Oldest meteorite yet found on earth 4,571 million years old.
4,530,000,000 YBN	33) Oldest Moon rock returned from Apollo missions (4.53 billions old).
LIFE
4,500,000,000 YBN	50) Start of Precambrian Supereon, Hadean Eon.
4,450,000,000 YBN	21) Planet Earth cools. Molten liquid rock turns into a solid thin crust. Water condenses and falls to the surface, filling the lowest parts of the land to make the first Earth oceans, lakes, and rivers.
4,404,000,000 YBN	34) Oldest "terrestrial" (not from meteorite) zircon yet found on earth, 4.404 billion years old, from Gneiss in West Australia, is evidence that the crust and liquid water were on the surface of earth 4.4 billion years before now.
4,400,000,000 YBN	18) Amino acids, phosphates, and sugars, the components of living objects are created on Earth. These molecules are made in the oceans, fresh water, and or atmosphere of earth (or other planets) by lightning, photons with ultraviolet frequency from the star, or ocean floor volcanos.
4,395,000,000 YBN	19) Nucleic acids form on Earth. One of these RNA molecules may be the ancestor of all of life on Earth, being part of the series of copies that leads to all later living objects on Earth. How nucleic acids (polymers made of nucleotides), proteins (polymers made of amino acids), carbohydrates (polymers made of sugars) and lipids (glycerol attached to fatty acids) evolved is not clearly known. Possibly all proteins, carbohydrates and lipids are strictly the products of living objects. Perhaps a group of bacteria survived the journey from a different star to this star and seeded the earth, even if true, the chemical evolution of the first cell is necessary somewhere in the universe. The initial building blocks of living objects are very easy to produce, and it can be presumed that the Earth's oceans had plenty of amino acids and other simple organic molecules floating around. But the next step is more difficult: assembling the simple building blocks of life into longer-chain molecules, or polymers. Amino acids link up to form longer polymers called proteins, simple fatty acids plus alcohols link up to form lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars like glucose and sucrose link together to form complex carbohydrates and starches, and finally, the nucleotide bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link up to form nucleic acids, the genetic code of organisms, known as RNA and DNA. Some proteins and nucleic acids have been formed in labs by using clay which can dehydrate and which provides long linear crystal structures to build proteins and nucleic acids on. Amino acids join together to form polypeptides when an H2O molecule is formed from a Hydrogen (H) on 1 amino acid and a hydroxyl (OH) on the second. Are all proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and DNA the products of living objects? Is RNA the only molecule of these that was made without the help of living objects? The most popular theory now has RNA (and potentially lipids) evolving first before any living objects. There is still a large amount of experiment, exploration and education that needs to be done to understand the origins of living objects on planet earth. My opinion is that as soon as there was liquid water on the earth, 4.4 billion years before now, as zircon crystals show, the construction of living objects started on earth. A bacteria can survive the trip between two stars, and possibly a eukaryote cell could survive frozen and be waken up again many years later, but it seems unlikely that a multicellular eukaryotic organism could survive and be revived from one star to another. Probably bacteria from a variety of stars land on all planets and asteroids, and are revived on many where the temperature allows them to copy. Possibly proteins evolved first, and a protein linked together the first nucleic acid.
4,390,000,000 YBN	25) Nucleic acid self-duplication may evolve. A ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule that can copy other RNA molecules may evolve. Perhaps RNA molecules, called "ribozymes" evolved which can make copies of RNA, by connecting free floating nucleotides that match a nucleotide on the same or a different RNA, without any proteins. But until such ribozyme RNA molecules are found, the only molecule known to copy nucleic acids are proteins called polymerases. If such ribozymes exist, then one of the first coded instructions on the RNA molecule that was the ancestor of every living species, must have been the code to make this ribozyme.
4,385,000,000 YBN	167) The first proteins on Earth. Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA), and link amimo acids into proteins using other RNA molecules as a template. Protein assembly evolves with the creation of various Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. Random mutations in the copying (and perhaps even in the natural formation) of RNA molecules probably created a number of the necessary tRNAs (transfer RNA, an RNA molecule responsible for matching free floating amino acid molecules to 3 nucleotide sequences on other RNA molecules). This would be a precellular protein assembly system, where tRNA (transfer RNA) molecules can build polypeptide chains of amino acids by linking directly to other RNA strands. Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide sequence from a different part of the tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an (m)RNA molecule. Since there are tRNA molecules for each amino acid (although some tRNAs can attach to more than one amino acid?), there must have been a slow accumulation of various tRNA molecules for each of the 20 amino acids used in constructing polypeptides in cells living now. Perhaps after the evolution of the first tRNA, the first polypeptides were chains of all the same one amino acid. With the evolution of a second tRNA polypeptides would have more variety because now two amino acids would be available to build polypeptides. This polypeptide assembly system may exist freely in water, or within a liposome. This sytem builds many more proteins than would be built without such a system. The mRNA with the code to make copier RNA, now also contains the code to produce various tRNA molecules. These molecules function as a unit, and proto-cell, with the rest of the mRNA initially containing random codes for random proteins. For the first time, RNA code represents a template for other RNA molecules, but also a template for building proteins with the help of tRNA molecules. There is some question of where the origin of the first cell took place, near volcanos on the ocean floor, or in fresh water lakes and tidal pools near volcanos on land, because unprotected nucleic acids cannot exist for much time in the ocean because of Sodium and Chlorine. What were the first amino acids connected as proteins? Were the first proteins all made with the same amino acid?
4,380,000,000 YBN	168) The ribosome evolves. First Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The early ribosome may function as a protocell, providing a platform for more efficient protein production, by holding an RNA molecule (Messenger RNA, mRNA) which is used as a template by tRNA molecules to assemble amino acids into a protein. A single mRNA molecule may contain the instructions for a protein that copies RNA, and all the necessary rRNA, and tRNA molecules needed to make more ribosomes. Ribosomes are the cellular organelles that carry out protein synthesis, through a process called translation. They are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, these molecular machines are responsible for accurately translating the linear genetic code, via the messenger RNA, into a linear sequence of amino acids to produce a protein. All cells contain ribosomes because growth requires the continued synthesis of new proteins. Ribosomes can exist in great numbers, ranging from thousands in a bacterial cell to hundreds of thousands in some human cells and hundreds of millions in a frog ovum. Ribosomes are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts. The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein (RNA-protein) complex, roughly 20 to 30 nanometers in diameter. It is formed from two unequally sized subunits, referred to as the small subunit and the large subunit. The two subunits of the ribosome must join together to become active in protein synthesis. However, they have distinguishable functions. The small subunit is involved in decoding the genetic information, while the large subunit has the catalytic activity responsible for peptide bond formation (that is, the joining of new amino acids to the growing protein chain). Now the mRNA that is the ancestral/progenitor of all of life, contains the code for the copier RNA, tRNAs, and the rRNA molecule. These nucleic acids function as a unit, and proto-cell. This rRNA serves as an early ribosome; objects that serve as sites for building polypeptides and are found in every cell. As time continues the ribosome will grow to include two more RNA molecules, some protein molecules, and a second half that will make polypeptide construction more efficient.
4,375,000,000 YBN	211) The first protein of real importance is evolved by RNA and assembled by the early ribosome, an RNA polymerase. A molecule that can more efficiently copy RNA.
4,370,000,000 YBN	40) One of the first useful proteins to be created with an early precellular protein production system must have been a protein (like RNA polymerase) that can make copies of RNA from mRNA molecules. This protein may have outperformed a ribozyme that was performing the copying function. Eventually mRNA that coded for tRNA molecules and mRNA that coded for rRNA molecules merged to form a template. Now the entire protein production system (the mRNA itself, tRNAs, rRNAs, and the RNA polymerase) could be copied many times by the RNA polymerase protein. This is before cytoplasm or any cell wall has evolved. RNA and DNA copying happens in water, the first cell has not evolved yet.
4,365,000,000 YBN	166) Protein that assembles the first DNA from RNA and either the first DNA molecule, or a more efficient method of DNA assembly evolves. A ribonucleotide reductase protein is built by the early ribosome protein making protocell. This protein changes ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides. This allows the first DNA molecule on earth to be assembled.
4,360,000,000 YBN	212) A DNA polymerase protein evolves to copy DNA by assembling DNA nucleotides from other DNA molecules.
4,355,000,000 YBN	20) DNA has 2 functions, 1) to serve as a template for making copies of itself (copied by the polymerase protein), 2) to serve as a template for assembling proteins. This membrane forms the first protective barrier between for DNA and the external universe, and serves as a container to hold water. Two important evolutionary steps evolve: DNA duplication in cytoplasm, and cell (DNA with cytoplasm) division. Not only must the DNA copy and divide, but the cell membrane must divide too. A system of division must evolve which attaches the original and newly synthesized copy of DNA to the cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows, the two copies of DNA can be separated and the first membraned cells can divide into two cells. This is the beginning of the "binary fission" method of cell division. Division of the cell begins with the division of the DNA membrane-attachment site and separates by the growth of new cytoplasm. RRNA comparison shows that this first cell is most likely a eubacterium. This cell (bacterium) may have evolved locally on earth or may have arrived from a different star system. The process of DNA duplication is probably similar if not the same process using the same proteins that were used to duplicate DNA without cytoplasm.
4,350,000,001 YBN	26) Perhaps DNA that is connected in a circle allows the DNA polymerase to make continuous copies of the cell which may increase the speed of cell growth, duplication and division. In theory prokaryote cells do not deteriorate from the effect of aging, but they do endure mutations (from photons with ultraviolet frequency, for example), however, there are many other ways prokaryotes can be destroyed (loss of water, physically damaged by nonliving objects, eaten by other organisms, and other mechanisms).
4,345,000,000 YBN	195) Proteins that actively transport molecules into and out of the cytoplasm (facilitative diffusion) evolve.
4,340,000,000 YBN	23) The first virus evolves. The first viruses are made either from bacteria, or are initially bacteria. These cells depend on the DNA duplicating and protein producing systems of other cells to reproduce themselves. Over time, more effective, and efficient virus designs will survive.
4,335,000,000 YBN	28) Glycolysis evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can now make ATP from glucose and eventually other monosaccharides, the end product is pyruvate. The glycolysis equation is: C6H12O6 (glucose) + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P -----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+
4,330,000,000 YBN	44) Fermentation evolves. Cells can make lactic acid. Fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can now make more ATP and convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) to lactate (an ionized form of lactic acid).
4,325,000,000 YBN	213) Fermentation of ethanol evolves.
4,320,000,000 YBN	183) Cells evolve that make proteins that can assemble the first lipids on Earth; (fats, oils, waxes).
4,315,000,000 YBN	196) Cells that use both proteins and energy (by breaking down ATP) to transport molecules into and out of the cytoplasm (active transport) evolve. (Explain active transport better. Might this be the release of photons to fuel or push some molecules?)
4,305,000,000 YBN	64) Operons evolve which allow for turning off the assembly of any protein. Operons, sequences of DNA that allow certain proteins coded by DNA to not be built, evolve. Proteins bind with these DNA sequences to stop RNA polymerase from building mRNA molecules which would be translated into proteins. Operons allow a bacterium to produce certain proteins only when necessary. Bacteria before now can only build a constant stream of all proteins encoded in their DNA.
4,304,500,000 YBN	322) Nitrogen fixation. Cells can make nitrogen compounds like ammonia from Nitrogen gas. Without bacteria that convert N2 into nitrogen compounds, the supply of nitrogen necessary for much of life would be seriously limited and would drastically slow evolution on earth. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen is taken from its relatively inert molecular form (N2) in the atmosphere and converted into nitrogen compounds useful for other chemical processes (such as, notably, ammonia, nitrate and nitrogen dioxide). Nitrogen fixation is performed naturally by a number of different prokaryotes, including bacteria, and actinobacteria certain types of anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants, and some animals (termites), have formed associations with these microorganisms.
4,304,000,000 YBN	287) (Filamentous) multicellularity evolves in prokaryotes. Cyanobacteria grow in filaments. Unlike eukaryotes, there is no communication between cells in prokaryote filments. Multicellularity appears to have evolved independently multiple times in the history of life on Earth.
4,302,000,000 YBN	316) Cell differentiation evolves in filamentous prokaryotes, creating organisms with different kinds of cells. In addition to regular cells, "Heterocysts", nitrogen-fixing cells, evolve in cyanobacteria. Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some filamentous cyanobacteria during nitrogen starvation.
4,260,000,000 YBN	27) DNA (or RNA) produces instructions for a cell wall. The cell wall only protects bacteria and does not filter any molecules as the cytoplasm does. is first gram-negative cell wall? 1. Only contain a few layers of peptidoglycan -- the building block for strong, rigid cell walls 2. Contain an outer membrane, external to the peptidoglycan, called the lipopolysaccharide 3. The space between the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane is called periplasmatic space 4. The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane, rather than the peptidoglycan 5. Any flagella, if present, have 4 supporting rings instead of two 6. No teichoic acids are present"
4,193,000,000 YBN	77) Archaea (also called archaebacteria) evolve. Last common ancestor of Eubacteria and Archaea. Eubacteria and Archaea (also called Archaebacteria) are the two major lines of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are the most primitive living objects ever found. Prokaryotes differ from the later evolved eukaryotes in have a circle of DNA located in their cytoplasm (not chromosomes) and have no nucleus. Archaea have a variety of shapes, including spherical, rodlike, and spiral forms. Genetic studies have indicated that archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria.
4,189,000,000 YBN	193) Genetic comparison shows that the Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles" evolve now (Aquifex, Thermotoga) .
4,189,000,000 YBN	292) Prokaryote flagellum evolves in proteobacteria. Perhaps pili evolved into flagella, flagella into pili, or the two systems are unrelated. This may be the beginning of motility. Now for the first time, cells are not completely controlled by surrounding matter, but can make limited choices about their location.
4,187,000,000 YBN	180) The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} are a major group of Archaea (or Archaebacteria). They include the methanogens, which produce methane and are often found in intestines, the halobacteria, which survive extreme concentrations of salt, and some extremely thermophilic aerobes and anaerobes. They are separated from the other archaeans based mainly on rRNA sequences. The Euryarchaeotes may be the living object with the most primitive DNA still found on earth (depending on the accurate determination of the origin of Eubacteria and Archaea). Halophilic archaebacteria, such as Halobacterium salinarum, use sensory rhodopsins for phototaxis (positive or negative movement along a light gradient or vector). The PHYLUM Euryarchaeota has the following classes: CLASS Archaeoglobi CLASS Halobacteria CLASS Methanobacteria CLASS Methanococci CLASS Methanomicrobia CLASS Methanopyri CLASS Methanosarcinae CLASS Thermococci CLASS Thermoplasmata There is disagreement about when Archaea evolved, and how ancient they are. for example Thomas Cavalier-Smith thinks that Archaea evolved recently and are sisters and not ancestors of eukaryotes. (It is interesting how a prokaryote can appear to have a nervous system electrical response to light, but without any of the cells we associate an electrical nervous response to light with in multicellular species with a nervous system. There must be some molecular/chemical mechanism that is created by particles of light within the prokaryote cytoplasm.)
4,187,000,000 YBN	181) Genetic comparison shows the Archaea Phylum, Crenarchaeota evolving now. The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly referred to as the crenarchaea, in the domain Archaea, contains many extremely thermophilic and psychrophilic organisms.
4,112,000,000 YBN	58) The first autotrophic cells, cells that can produce some if not all of their own food (amino acids, nucleotides, sugars, phophates, lipids, and carbohydrates), but require phosphorus, nitrogen, CO2, water and light in the form of heat. Autotrophs produce their own sugars, lipids, and amino acids using carbon dioxide as a source of carbon, and ammonia or nitrates as a source of nitrogen. There are only 2 kinds of autotrophy: Lithotrophy and Photosynthesis. Organisms that use light for the energy to synthesize organic compounds are called photosynthetic autotrophs; organisms that oxidize such compounds as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to obtain energy are called chemosynthetic autotrophs, or chemotrophs. Photosynthetic autotrophs include the green plants, certain algae, and the pigmented sulfur bacteria (see photosynthesis). Chemotrophs include the iron bacteria, the nitrifying bacteria, and the nonpigmented sulfur bacteria (see chemosynthesis). Heterotrophs are organisms that must obtain their energy from organic compounds. Autotrophs require only simple inorganic substances to fulfil its nutritional requirements and for which gaseous or dissolved carbon dioxide is the sole source of carbon for the synthesis of cellular constituents. The term often includes any microorganism for which trace amounts of certain substances, e.g. vitamins, must also be supplied. These are lithotrophic cells that change inorganic (abiotic) molecules into organic molecules. These cells are archaebacteria, called methanogens that perform the reaction: 4H2 + CO2 -> CH4 + 2H2O. They convert CO2 into Methane. Methane is better than CO2 for trapping heat, and could have contributed to heating the earth.
4,100,000,000 YBN	49) First photosynthetic cells. These cells only have Photosystem I. Photosynthesis Photosystem I evolves in early anaerobic prokaryote cells. One of two photosythesis systems, photosystem I uses a pigment chlorophyll A, absorbs photons in 700 nm wave lengths best, breaking the bond betwenn H2 and S. They are anaerobic and perform the reaction: H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide) + CO2 + light -> CH2O (Formaldehyde) + 2S.
4,030,000,000 YBN	35)
4,000,000,000 YBN	43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II evolves in bacteria. Cells with this system emit free Oxygen. This sytem is the main system responsible for producing the Oxygen now in the air of earth. Photosynthesis Photosystem II evolves in early prokaryote cells. Photosystem 2 absorbs photons best at 680nm wavelengths, a higher frequency of light than Photosystem I. These cells can break the strong Hydrogen bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen in water molecules (which are more abundant than Sulphur). This system emits free Oxygen.
3,900,000,000 YBN	57) This is the first aerobic cell, a cell that has an oxygen based metabolism. This cell uses oxygen to convert glucose (and eventually other sugars and fats) into CO2, H2O and ATP. For example, cells that oxidize glucose perform the reaction: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 38 ADP + 38 phosphate -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP This reaction (with glycolysis) can produce up to 36 ATP molecules. Cellular respiration is the opposite (although the specific reactions differ) of photosynthesis which starts with H2O and CO2 and produces glucose.
3,850,000,000 YBN	36) Banded Iron Formation is a sedimentary mineral deposit consisting of alternate silica-rich (chert or quartz) and iron-rich layers formed from 3.5 to 2.5 billion years ago.	Akilia Island, Western Greenland
3,850,000,000 YBN	45) Banded Iron Formation (BIF) may have formed because photosynthetic bacteria (in stromatolites found in shallow ocean shores, and purple bacteria floating in water) produce oxygen from CO2 during photosynthesis. When the level of oxygen in the water becomes too high, many bacteria die, and this cycle creates the BIF. But BIF also may form naturally when photons in uv frequencies split H2O into H2 and O2. So perhaps the BIF bands represent cycles of more or less uv light reaching the earth. Perhaps the alternating phenomenon is similar to eukaryotic algal blooms. In any event, this free oxygen bonds with the many tons of iron dissolved in the water to form insoluble iron oxide which then falls to the ocean floor to form the orange layers of Banded Iron Formation. How these alternating bands are made is not clear and should be duplicated in a lab. (It is somewhat amazing that people are still not certain what was the cause of the oxygen, and the cycles that deposited the banded Iron Formation are.)	Akilia Island, Western Greenland
3,850,000,000 YBN	51) End of Hadean start of Archean Eon.
3,850,000,000 YBN	189)
3,800,000,000 YBN	185) (Determine if earliest chemical evidence.)
3,760,000,000 YBN	186)
3,700,000,000 YBN	184)
3,700,000,000 YBN	215)
3,566,000,000 YBN	78)
3,500,000,000 YBN	37)	Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig Tree Group, South Africa
3,500,000,000 YBN	39) Oldest fossil of an organism, thought to be cyanobacteria, found in 3,500 Million Year old chert from South Africa and 3,465 Million year old Apex chert of the Pilbara Supergroup, Warrawoona Group, northwestern Western Australia. Some people argue that these are not fossils of bacteria but abiotic material. Most genetic timelines put the origin of cyanobacteria much later around 2,700mybn. Cyanobacteria evolved (filamentous) multicellularity where cellular differentiation occurs. Two and a half billion years will pass before the first animal evolves.	Warrawoona, northwestern Western Australia
3,500,000,000 YBN	289) Some people think the origin of eukaryotes happened here at 3.5 bybn. Possible eukaryote (acritarch) fossils have been found in 3.2 billion year old rocks.
3,470,000,000 YBN	182) Evidence of sulfate reduction by bacteria.	North Pole, Australia
3,430,000,000 YBN	833) Stromatolites made by photosynthetic bacteria found in Pilbara Craton, Australia.
3,416,000,000 YBN	218) Fossil and molecular evidence of photosynthetic, probably anoxygenic (anaerobic), bacteria that lived in mats in the ocean date to this time.
3,400,000,000 YBN	190) Fossils of bacteria from Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System, South Africa. (Oldest fossil of bacteria?)
3,260,000,000 YBN	71) Budding evolves in prokayotes. Different from binary division, where a cell is split in half, in budding, a new complete cell is made in the original cell, and the new cell bursts through the cell wall, the original cell wall must then be repaired. Budding is the only other method of reproduction known in prokaryotes besides binary fission. The only major difference between prokaryote budding and binary division are that one or more new cells are completely formed inside the original cell, where in binary division part of the original cell wall is used to make the new cell.
3,250,000,000 YBN	191) Fossils from Swartkoppie chert, South Africa are oldest evidence of procaryotes that reproduce by budding and not binary fission.	Swartkoppie, South Africa
3,235,000,000 YBN	68) Oldest Archaea fossil. Thermophilic prokaryote fossils found in 3235 million year old deep-sea volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits from the Pilbara Craton of Australia may be oldest Archaea fossils.
3,200,000,000 YBN	66) Earliest known acritarch fossils (unicellular microfossils with uncertain affinity). Oldest possible eukaryote fossils (acritarchs). Organic-walled microfossils of large size (50 micrometres or more) and of uncertain biological affinities are known as acritarchs. The oldest known acritarchs are from rocks of the Moodies Group of South Africa that date to about 3.2 billion years ago, and are almost twice as old as the next known acritarchs which come from mid-Proterozoic rocks that are about 1.8 billion years old. Acritarchs, the name coined by Evitt in 1963 which means "of uncertain origin", are an artificial group. The group includes any small (most are between 20-150 microns across), organic-walled microfossil which cannot be assigned to a natural group. They are characterised by varied sculpture, some being spiny and others smooth. They are believed to have algal affinities, probably the cysts of planktonic eukaryotic algae. They are valuable Proterozoic and Palaeozoic biostratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental tools. Living spherical prokaryotic cells rarely exceed 20 microns in diameter, but eukaryotic cells are nearly always larger than 60 microns. Although their precise nature is uncertain, acritarchs appear to be phytoplankton that grew thick coverings during a resting stage in their life cycle. Some resemble the resting stage of modern marine algae known as dinoflagellates (known from the "red tides" that periodically poison fish and other marine animals). Although these acritarch fossils may be from eukaryotes, they may also be from ancestors of eukaryotes before a nucleus existed which there may be some genetic support for.	(Moodies Group) South Africa
2,923,000,000 YBN	178) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes evolving now (low G+C {Guanine and Cytosine count} Gram positive bacteria: botulism, tetanus, anthrax). Firmicutes include the Classes: Bacillus (anthrax), Listeria, Mollicutes, and Stephylococcus. Firmicutes may be the first bacteria to have a gram positive cell wall. The peptidoglycan layer is thicker in Gram-positive bacteria (20 to 80 nm) than in Gram-negative bacteria (7 to 8 nm) Firmicultes form endospores, and is the only phlyum of bacteria that evolved the ability to build endospores.
2,920,000,000 YBN	288) An endospore is any spore that is produced within an organism (usually a bacterium). Most bacterium produce only one spore, as this is not a reproduction process. This is in contrast to exospores, which are rather produced by growth or budding. The primary function of most endospores is to ensure the survival of a colony through periods of environmental stress. Endospores are therefore resistant to desiccation, temperature, starvation, ultraviolet and gamma radiation, and chemical disinfectants. One of the great questions of this time is: "what is the process behind cell differentiation and cell growth?" How is each stage initiated and stopped? There are a number of theories. One theory presumes the entire DNA strand is accessible at all times. In this view operons are used sequentially, while many proteins are supressed, some operons are active, which results in one set of proteins developing the cell, at some point, the first group of operons are inhibited and a different operon (or set of operons) is turned on, signalling a new set of proteins to be built which effects the growth and shape of the cell. An abundance of a first stage protein might initiate the second stage. A second theory is that DNA is read like a computer program with some proteins moving along the DNA strand, one part at a time. In this way, one portion of the DNA may reflect one life stage, while the next portion represents the next (and perhaps very different) life stage. The endospore-forming bacteria belong to the Firmicutes.
2,800,000,000 YBN	76) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of all bacteria Proteobacteria (Rickettsia {ancestor of all mitochondria}, gonorrhoea, Salmonella, E coli) evolving now.
2,800,000,000 YBN	177) Gender and sex (conjugation, the exchange of DNA by a donor {male} bacterium to a recipient {female} bacterium using a pilus) evolve in Escherichia Coli bacteria. This may or may not be the process that leads to eukaryote sexual reproduction by cellular fusion (which evolves into multicellular sexual reproduction by specialized sex cells {gametes}). In addition to pili and conjugation, proteins evolve that can assist in splitting DNA and also proteins that assist in merging two strands of DNA together, since some times the DNA in split and the new plasmid is connected and the DNA circle is sown back together. Pili, plasmids and conjugation evolves in prokaryotes. Now some prokaryotes can exchange circular pieces of DNA (plasmids), through tubes (pili). Conjugation may be the process that led to sex (cellular fusion) and also the transition from a circle of DNA to chromosomes in eukaryotes, since some protists (cilliates and some algae) reproduce sexually by conjugation. (Since cell reproduction is so essential a part of a cell line's continued existence it seems logical that this DNA code would be the most conserved over the centuries. Identify the arguments against this theory.) (One argument for sexual reproduction evolving separately in eukaryotic cells is that some eukaryotes only reproduce through binary fission. If sexual reproduction evolved in the ancestor of all eukaryote cells, they would probably all reproduce sexually. Possibly those eukaryote cells lost the ability to reproduce sexually, or nucleated cells have evolved through different lines. More needs to be learned, about the nature of conjugation and eukaryote sexual and asexual reproduction, and cell structure. Ask experts in the field if they think conjugation evolved into sex, and search for more published papers on the topic of the evolution of sexual reproduction.) (Provide more evidence for this time - perhaps conjugation evolves much later after the common ancestor of E. Coli.)
2,784,000,000 YBN	176) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS} (Planctobacteria) evolving now. Planctomycetes are a possible ancestor of all eukaryotes because the circle of DNA can sometimes be enclosed in a double membrane. Planctomycetes is a small phylum with only 4 Genera, which requires oxygen for growth (obligately aerobic), and are found in fresh and salt water. Planctomycetes reproduce by budding. They have holdfast (stalk) at the nonreproductive end that helps them to attach to each other during budding.
2,784,000,000 YBN	179) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu} (high G+C {Guanine and Cytosine count}, Gram positive, source of streptomycin) evolving now. The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria. Most are found in the soil.
2,775,000,000 YBN	174) Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ) evolves now (Syphilis, Lyme disease). This is when the first spiral shaped bacteria evolve. Spirochaetes includes leptospirosis (leptospira), Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi), and Syphilis (Treponema pallidum).
2,775,000,000 YBN	175) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phyla Bacteroidetes {BaKTERrOEiTEZ} evolving now.
2,775,000,000 YBN	217) Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Phyla Chlamydiae {Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E} evolving now. Chlamydiae includes (clamydia, trachoma {Chlamydia trachomatis}, a form of pneumonia {Chlamydophila pneumoniae}, psittacosis {Chlamydophila psittaci}. The Chlamydiae are a group of bacteria, all of which are intracellular parasites of eukaryotic cells.
2,775,000,000 YBN	6309) Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Chlorobi (green sulphur bacteria) evolving now.
2,775,000,000 YBN	6310) Genetic comparison shows the Eubacteria Phylum Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo) evolving now.
2,740,000,000 YBN	216) Histones, proteins which are packed in between nucleotides in each chromosome evolve.
2,730,000,000 YBN	80) How similar endocytosis is to conjugation is unknown at this time. (Determine if there are any known prokaryotes that can do endo or exocytosis, or injest other bacteria. I think E. Coli would be one possible prokaryote that could.)
2,720,000,000 YBN	65) Prokaryote cells with linear chromosomes (instead of a circular) DNA evolve. All eukaryotes will descend from these prokaryotes
2,706,000,000 YBN	299) Duplication of diploid DNA (after 2 haploid cells fuse) evolves.
2,700,000,000 YBN	60) The first eukaryotic cell evolves. The first cell with a nucleus. The nucleus has either single strands or a circle of DNA inside. This is the first protist. The nucleus may be a captured bacterium, virus or plasmid, or has grown from part of the membrane or cell wall. That a eukaryote cell survived the journey from a different star or galaxy cannot be ruled out. This cell evolves either by: 1) two or more bacteria joined, one with flagella (perhaps a eubacteria) formed the nucleus, a second formed the cytoplasm outside the nucleus, eventually the code to build the entire cell including the instructions to build the symbiotic captured bacteria was included in the new nucleus, 2) the nucleus formed as part of the cytoplasm lattice, perhaps the outer wall folded in on itself creating a double membrane, or a membrane grew around the DNA (for example like planctobacteria) which provided more protection for the DNA from the movement and digestive activities of cytoplasm now without a rigid cell wall, 3) a bacteria with flagella that grew cytoplasm and a secondary cell wall outside the original cell membrane and wall, 4) a virus (many viruses have linear chromosomes), 5) a DNA strand from conjugation with a different prokaryote stored in a vesicle. There are key features that are different from eukaryotes and prokaryotes: 1) Eukaryotes have a nucleus, prokaryotes do not. 2) DNA in eukaryotes is in the form of chromosomes, in prokaryotes the DNA is in a circle. (There may be exceptions) 3) Eukaryotes can do endocytosis, fold their cell membrane around some external object and injest the object, prokaryotes can not. (verify) 4) Eukaryotes have a membrane lattice of proteins, actin and myacin, prokaryotes do not. 5) Eukaryotes have an endoplasmic reticulum and golgi body. 6) Eukaryotes reproduce asexually by dual binary division (both nucleus and cell divide by binary division), budding, or mitosis, prokaryotes reproduce by budding or binary division. If the nucleus is an engulfed prokaryote, this cell inherits the processes of nuclear DNA duplication and nucleus division (karyokinesis) from prokaryote binary division. Initially, both the nucleus and cell divide by binary division. Support for the nucleus forming from a prokaryote is that chromosomes in parabasalia and dinoflagellates remain permanently anchored to the nuclear membrane (envelope?) by the kinetochores, the same way prokaryote DNA anchors to the cell membrane (wall?) during cell division. A theory of an archaebacteria (perhaps an eocyte) forming the first eukaryote nucleus and a gram-negative eubacteria forming the cytoplasm of the first eukaryote is supported by genetic evidence. This cell reproduces asexually by either binary fission (both nucleus and cytoplasm) or budding, or sexually by conjugation or both cell and nuclei fully merging. If this cell has chromosomes, this is the first (haploid) organism with chromosomes. Perhaps a sperm-like flagellated prokaryote merged with an ovum-like prokaryote from the same or a different species, perhaps by the ovum opening a pilus and the sperm-like cell entering the pilus, and once inside opening a pilus through which the DNA from the two cells could merge. Many diplomonads look like sperm cells stuck in an ovum, with the still flagellated sperm forming the nucleus, and some diplomonads, for example, the oxymonad, Saccinobaculus reproduce sexually. An important evolutionary step had to evolve here, and that is the evolution of the prokaryote binary division system: 1) duplicating DNA in the cytoplasm, 2) separating the two copies of DNA, and 3) the division of cytoplasm into two cells to an adapted process of eukaryote cell division: 1) duplicating DNA in the nucleus, 2) separating the DNA in the nucleus, 3) dividing the nucleus into two nuclei, 4) separating the two nuclei, and then 5) dividing the cytoplasm into two cells. It appears in early eukaryote nuclei (as seen in closed mitosis, where the nuclear membrane persists through mitosis) that the nuclei divide by a process similar to binary division (as opposed to budding), which adds to the support for the first nucleus being a prokaryote and continuing to divide by binary division. Most people accept that the centrioles from which grow the microtubule spindles that pull apart chromosomes in mitosis, evolved from the base pairs which originally were, and on some species still are, connected to a cilium. evidence for prokaryote=eukaryote nucleus 1) flagella connected to nucleus of metamonads. a) flagella hints that nucleus prokaryote may have been a male gamete (and the cytoplasm the female gamete). b) flagella are presumably outside the double membrane, indicates that came after capture? Maybe flagella penetrate double membrane...perhaps were initialy inside or partially inside and outside. 2) nucleus division does not need to be recreated, can be basically the same inherited prokaryote cell division (perhaps with minor adjustments), only within a cell membrane. 3) conjugation already existed as a form of exchanging DNA before the first eukaryote, it is possible that a complete bacterium could be taken in through a pilus. Some eukaryotes like spyrogrya still reproduce sexually through conjugation. 4) DNA was splitting and merging with conjugation in prokaryotes before eukaryotes. 5) division of nucleus and cytoplasm is different, just like mitochondria, when the cytoplasm divides is signalled by molecules (as far as I know), and a nucleus may divide without the cytoplasm dividing (immediately or perhaps ever) in some protists. (Clearly many metamonads have multiple nuclei). It's interesting that some metamonads have muliple nuclei (mastigonts), because when they reproduce it is all integrated, each nuceli is rebuilt (as far as I know). Maybe that shows how simple throwing together nuclei and cytoplasm is for DNA for put together and reproduce. 6) two layer membrane around nucleus, is evidence of a prokaryote being captured in a vacuole. 7) happened for mitochondria, chloroplasts, (and later red algae and green algae), that is support for a prokaryote similar to rikettsia, or cyanobacteria being engulfed and forming nucleus. 8) "all eukaryotic HSP70 homologs share in common with the Gram-negative group of eubacteria a number of sequence features that are not present in any archaebacterium or Gram-positive bacterium, indicating their evolution from this group of organisms." 9) Most genes related to the nucleus are related to archaebacteria, while those relating to the cytoplasm are related to eubacteria. Perhaps there are some eukaryote nuclei that duplicate by budding, although this has never been found to my knowledge. If ever found, that would imply that budding evolved before the first eukaryote, but could have possibly evolved after by simply dropping the instructions to copy anything other than the nucleus. Binary cell division in the most basic form only synthesizes more cytoplasm and cell wall, where budding reproduces the entire body plan of a cell (or nucleus in this case). One piece of evidence that supports the nucleus as a captured bacteria, is that some protists, (some fungi I think) divide only their nuclei multiple times before or without any cytoplasm division. Perhaps there was a long period of time where the future eukaryote nucleus was only an organelle, reproducing initially like mitochondria and chloroplasts do, by themselves, but initiated by the nuclear duplication and cytoplasmic division (check). Somehow the binary division process of the cytoplasm DNA and the binary division process of the nucleus-organelle had to merge into one process. Either the spindle chromosome method (mitosis) evolved before or after the nucleus-organelle has taken over the cytoplasm building function. As time continued, the process of spindle separation evolved for the nucleus-organelle. As time continued, the building of the nucleus-organelle was taken over by the cytoplasmic DNA, still reproducing by binary fission. I could see how budding would be a natural evolution for a cell nucleus that starts as an organelle, is reproduced by cytoplasm DNA and then the DNA is tranfered back into the nucleus-organelle. The nucelus-organelle would then recreate the entire cell inside the nucleus (including the cytoplasm DNA presumably), and presumably it would burst out and continue to copy that way. Perhaps budding prokaryotes were budding eukaryotes that still had their cytoplasm DNA that actually lost their nucleus-organelle. Then budding perhaps evolved into mitosis. I think that mitosis is more similar to binary division than budding is. It seems clear that the nucleus-organelle copied itself. Potentially the same proteins that initiate DNA duplication and cell division for the cytoplasm DNA simulteously initiate DNA duplication and cell (nucleus-organelle) division in the nucleus-organelle. So the nucleus-organelle may have been exactly like a mitochondrion for many years. Although there are uncertainties, this first eukaryote is thought to be a member of the broad group of single celled eukaryotes called "flagellates". It is theorized that later will evolve the unicellular "ameobozoid" and "ciliate" groups. (this is a little vague and I am not sure it really covers algae, and the other alveolates, but it does reduce the complexity of protists) Not all prokaryotes have a single chromosome of circular DNA. That a eukaryote cell survived the journey from a different star or galaxy cannot be ruled out. (Determine what is published about eukaryote survivability.) (Did the first eukaryote cell evolve from a prokaryote that had a single circular DNA molecule, or one or more linear DNA molecules?) (What method of reproduction this first nucleated cell uses is a great mystery. Among the choices are binary division, budding, or mitosis. My own feeling is that budding or dual binary division (both nucleus and cytoplasm) was how this cell initially copied.)
2,700,000,000 YBN	62) Earliest molecular fossil evidence of eukaryotes (sterane molecules). These are the oldest known steranes (which are formed from sterols, molecules made by mitochondria in eukaryotes) and are evidence for the existence of eukaryotes.	Northwestern Australia
2,700,000,000 YBN	192)
2,700,000,000 YBN	214)
2,690,000,000 YBN	207) Cytoskeleton evolves in eukaryote cytoplasm.
2,690,000,000 YBN	208) A eukaryote flagellum evolves (also called "cilium" or "undulipodium"). The eukaryote cilia (flagella, undulipodia) may evolve from a prokaryote flagella connected to the nucleus, from the cytoskeleten, or a symbiotic prokaryote. Cilia and eukaryote flagella are structurally the same. The Eukarote flagellum is different from Prokayote flagellum. The prokaryote flagallum is a solid structures, made of the protein flagellin, which protrudes through the plasma membrane. The eukaryote flagellum (and cilium) contains a "9 plus 2 array", 9 microtubules in a circle with 2 microtubules in the center.
2,680,000,000 YBN	291) Eukaryote cell evolves an intermediate stage between DNA synthesis and cell division. For the first time, a cell is not constantly synthesizing DNA and then having a division period (as is the case for all known prokaryotes), but this cell has a period in between cell division and DNA synthesis where DNA synthesis is not performed. Later some cells develop a stage after synthesis and before cell division.
2,670,000,000 YBN	302) If the cell nucleus is a capture procaryote, synchronized division of Eukaryote nucleus and cytoplasm must evolve.
2,660,000,000 YBN	72) Mitosis, the asexual copying of a haploid (single set of chomosomes) eukaryote nucleus, evolves in eukaryotes. Before mitosis, there is a synthesis stage where chromosomes are duplicated in the nucleus before the nucleus and cell divide.
2,650,000,000 YBN	170) Bacteria live on land.
2,650,000,000 YBN	303) Possibly two cells that fuse cytoplasms but not nuclei, may still retain the system of cytoplasmic DNA and organelle-nucleus attachment to cell membrane (wall?), but on each half of the new cell, therefore making dual haploid mitosis (potentially of both cytoplasmic DNA and organelle-nucleus in synchronized duplication) a simple evolutionary next step.
2,640,000,000 YBN	73) Sex (cell and genetic fusion, syngamy, gametogamy) evolves in Eukaryotes (protists). Haploid (1 set of chromosomes) eukaryote cells merge and then their nuclei merge (karyogamy) to form the first diploid (2 sets of chromosomes) cells (the first zygote). This fusion of 2 haploid cells results in the first diploid single-celled organism, which then immediately divides (both nucleus and cytoplasm by single-division meiosis) back to two haploid cells. Possibly first, only cytoplasmic merging happened with nuclear merging (karyogamy) and nuclear division (karyokinesis) evolving later. Now, two cells with different DNA can mix providing more chance of variety and mutation. Two chromosome sets provides a backup copy of important genes (sequences that code for proteins, or nucleic acids) that might be lost with only a set of single chromosomes. The life cycle of future organisms will now have two phases, a gamophase (from n to 2n (until syngamy)), and zygophase (from 2n to n (until meiosis)). Gamoid cells are not haploid in polyploid organisms. Potentially cell and genetic fusion is what made the first eukaryote cell, and sex in protists may be directly descended from conjugation in prokaryotes, in other words not evolved from a different method independently of conjugation, because some metamonads, for example Saccinobaculus reproduce sexually, and look very much like a prokaryote sperm cell which formed the nucleus captured in an ovum cell. For sexual species there are 3 basic life cycles: 1) Haploid (Haplontic) life cycle: zygotic meiosis. Life as haploid cells, cell division immediately after creation of zygote from fusion. (All fungi, Some green algae, Many protozoa) 2) Diploid (Diplontic) life cycle: gametic meiosis. Instead of immediate cell division, zygote reproduces by mitosis. Haploid gametes never copy by mitosis. (animals, some brown algae) 3) Haplodiploid (Haplodiplontic, Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life cycle: sporic meiosis. Diploid cell (sporocyte) meiosis results in 2 haploid sporophytes (gamonts), not 2 haploid gametes. These haploid cells then differentiate? or mitosis? to form haploid gametes. Haplodiplontic organisms have alternation of generations, one generation involves diploid spore-producing single or multicellular sporophytes (makes spores) and the other generation involves haploid single or multicellular gamete-producing multicellular gametophytes (makes gametes). Plants and many algae have this haplodiplontic life cycle. These first sexual cells are haplontic, with zygotic meiosis; they reproduce asexually through mitosis as haploid cells, fusing to a diploid cell without mitosis, then dividing back into haploid cells. An important evolutionary step evolves here in that now two cells can completely merge into one cell. This merge not only includes their nuclei, but also their cytoplasm (although the DNA do not merge). Before now, as far as has ever been observed, no two cells have ever completely merged, although, through conjugation some prokaryotes have been observed to exchange DNA. This is the beginning of the label "gamete" for haploid cells that can merge to form a diploid zygote. In addition, the label "gametocyte" or "gamont" is any polyploid cell that divides (meiosis) into haploid gamete cells which can merge to form a zygote.
2,630,000,000 YBN	206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis: a single cell division of a diploid cell into 2 haploid cells).
2,620,000,000 YBN	210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves. This begins the "diplontic" life cycle (with gametic meiosis), where diploid cells (a zygote) can copy asexually through mitosis after merging. This organism, when haploid, cannot do mitosis, and this is still true in all descendents (including humans) of this single celled organism. Mitosis of diploid cells evolves. This begins the "diplontic" life cycle (with gametic meiosis), where diploid cells (a zygote) can copy asexually through mitosis after merging. This organism, when haploid, cannot do mitosis (presumably haploid gamete mitosis will evolve much later in brown algae), and this is still true in all descendents (including humans) of this single celled organism. The proteins and mechanism of mitosis of diploid cells is probably very similar to mitosis of haploid cells. The most primitive organisms still alive that are diplontic are the metamonads (e.g. Oxymonads: Notila, Hypermastigotes: Urinympha, Macrospironympha, Rhynchonympha).
2,610,000,000 YBN	296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves. Sex (cell and nucleus fusion) between two isogamous (same size) gametes (homogamy) which have 2 different (+ and -) shapes (genders). (Note that the word "homogamy" is used in contrast to the word "heterogamy".) Possibly eukaryote cell fusion and gender is directly descended from prokaryote conjugation. (It is interesting to note, that the first prokaryote and/or eukaryotic sex may have been homosexual sex - that is sex between two identical cells. However, perhaps some difference was required between a donor and recipient cell.) (Perhaps the invention of two different genders originated when a flagellated cell (or nucleus) divided by binary division and only one half of the two new cells retained the flagellum code. Then to differentiate the two cells even more, but still keep the same DNA template, different proteins could be weighted on one half of the cell during division to activate various operons in one gender but not the other once the two DNA pairs are separated.) (Clearly for Eukaryote sex, many male gametes have a flagellum while female gametes have no flagellum and are usually much larger than the male gamete {determine how common this is, and what exceptions exist}. This implies that the male is more mobile, and moves over a larger space than the female gamete cell. What selective purpose this may have is unknown- for example why both cells are usually not identical in size and shape. Prokaryote gender is apparently not as distinct as for Eukaryote species.)
2,600,000,000 YBN	297) Sex between two different sized cells (heterogamy or anisogamy) evolves in protists. Some species are heterogamous but two of the same sized (gender) gametes can fuse to form a zygote.
2,590,000,000 YBN	298) This system is the system humans inherited.
2,580,000,000 YBN	300) Only a few species exhibit this property (e.g. the Oxymonad Notilla, Diatoms, Dasicladales {Acetabularia}, in many foraminiferans, and in gregarines). Gamontogamy may have evolved into two-step meiosis. The vast majority of eukaryotes living now that reproduce sexually fuse haploid cells. All "gametes" are haploid cells that can merge, diploid cells that can merge are gamonts. Gamonts (Meiocytes) are cells that produce gametes. In theory this should be very similar if not exactly like haploid cell fusion, so perhaps this is not a major evolutionary step.
2,570,000,000 YBN	295) Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA copies and then the cell divides twice into four haploid cells).
2,558,000,000 YBN	171) The Eubacteria phylum "Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves now (includes Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can survive long exposure to radiation}).
2,558,000,000 YBN	172) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria {SIeNOBaKTEREu} evolving now. Cyanobacteria are the ancestor of all eukaryote plastids (for example chloroplasts). There is a conflict between the interpretation of the geological and the genetic evidence as to if oxygen photosynthesis and cyanobacteria evolved earlier around 3800mybn or here at 2500mybn. Some cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena, Synechocystis) can slowly orient themselves along a light vector.
2,558,000,000 YBN	315) Bacteria Phylum Chloroflexi, (Green Non-Sulphur) evolve.
2,500,000,000 YBN	52) End of Archean and start of Proterozoic Eon.
2,500,000,000 YBN	56) Banded Iron Formation starts to appear in many places.
2,400,000,000 YBN	59) Start of 200 million year ice age.
2,335,000,000 YBN	290) The nucleolus, a sphere in the nucleus that makes ribosomes, evolves.
2,330,000,000 YBN	198) The rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum evolve in a eukaryote cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane system that extends from the nucleus, important in the synthesis of proteins and lipids.
2,325,000,000 YBN	199) Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves (packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations). A vesicle is a closed structure, found only in eukaryotic cells, that is completely surrounded by a membrane but, unlike a vacuole, contains material that is not in the liquid state.
2,300,000,000 YBN	47) Most recent evidence of uraninite, a mineral that cannot exist for much time if exposed to oxygen, indicating that free oxygen is accumulating in the air of earth for the first time.
2,300,000,000 YBN	48) Oldest Red Beds, iron oxide formed on land, begin here and are evidence of more free oxygen in the air of Earth.
2,156,000,000 YBN	150) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the eubacteria and archaebacteria line separating here at 2,156 mybn, first archaebacteria.
2,000,000,000 YBN	63) A parasitic bacterium, a bacterium that can only live in other bacteria, closely related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an oxygenic (aerobic) alpha-proteobacteria that causes louse-borne typhus, is engulfed by an early eukaryote cell. As time continues a symbiotic relationship evolves, where the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria, organelles of every eukaryote cell. The mitochondria perform the Acid Citric Cycle (Krebs Cycle), using oxygen to breakdown glucose into CO2 and H2O, and provide up 38 ATP molecules. Mitochondria reproduce by themselves, and are not created by the DNA in the cell nucleus. As time continues some of the DNA from the mitochondria merges with the cell nucleus DNA. Mitochondria produce sterol used to make the eukaryote cell wall flexible. Because mitochondria need Oxygen, but the level of oxygen is very low on earth, oxygen may be provided by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria living near these cells. All eukaryotes alive today either have mitochondria except the amitochondriate excavates (metamonads), the most ancient of the eukaryotes alive today. That parabasalids have hydrogenosomes, anaerobic organelles that seem to have evolved from mitochondria, many people think amitochondriate species lost their mitochondria over time. This changes the eukaryote cell from an anaerobic to aerobic unicellular organism. This early mitochondria may have "tubular christae". Perhaps there was a period of time where a system evolved to make sure both halves received mitochondria during cell division. Protists with discoidal mitochondrial cristea will later evolve from the Bikont tubular mitochondrial christae branch. For the most part: 1) Excavates, Amoebozoa, and Chromealveolates have or had tubular christae, 2) Discicristata (Euglenozoa) have discoidal christae. 3) Cryptomonads, Glaucophytes, Red Algae, Green Algae, Plants, Fungi, Animals all have flat christae. From this point on, all eukaryotes will need Oxygen to use mitochondria and receive the ATP made by mitochondria. Hedges et al state that from there analysis: "Cyanobacteria appear before the major (undisputed) evidence of the rise in oxygen (2.4–2.2 Ga) and mitochondria appear after the rise in oxygen.". (verify is through symbiosis and not enslavement, etc.)
2,000,000,000 YBN	293) Protists Malawimonadea and Jakobea originate now, and are possibly the most ancient species that still have mitochondria. Jakobea and Malawimonadea were in the Protist Phylum "Loukozoa", however that grouping may be paraphyletic (a taxonomic group that does not contain all of the descendants of its most recent common ancestor). Possibly Jakobids (including Andalucia), Euglenozoa and Heterolobosea form a major clade that has been named "Discoba". Malawimonas forms a third group of the excavates, with Metamonada and Discoba. Genetic comparison shows the Protist Phylum "Loukozoa" (Jakobea and Malawimonadea) originating now. These species have mitochondria with tubular cristae, and may be the most ancient species that still has mitochondria. This species is also the most ancient known species to have a shell (lorika).
1,990,000,000 YBN	301) Haplodiplontic (also known as Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life cycle (organism with both diploid and haploid "alternate life stages" that reproduce asexually by mitosis) with "sporic meiosis" evolves. In this life cycle haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote which divides by meiosis producing haploid spores that produce (differentiate?) gametes, starting the cycle again. Initially these species are single celled in both stages (like Haptophyta). All plants, most brown algae, blastocladiid chytrids, many red algae, and some filamentous green algae (e.g. Cladophora) and foraminifera have haplodiploid life cycles. Initially, these organisms are single celled, but later the mitosis stages will become multicellular when the cells that result from mitosis stick together. The only? example of this is Haptophyta, where diploid cells divide in sporic meiosis, into haploid cells (gamonts) which then divide into gametes.
1,988,000,000 YBN	317)
1,982,000,000 YBN	99) First homeobox genes evolve. These genes regulate the building of major body parts in algae, plants, fungi and animals. In 1894 William Bateson coined the term "homeosis" for a mutation which causes a part of a body to appear in some different part. "Homeo" comes from Bateson's "homoeosis" and "box" refers to a "box" of 180 nucleotide code letters that all genes known as homeobox genes have somewhere in their length. The name "Hox" is not used for all homeobox genes but only for the linear arrays of genes that determine position along the length of an animal's body and which are homologous in nearly all animals. In one experiment, when a hox gene responsible for growing a mouse eye is added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo that is destined to be a leg, an extra fruit fly eye is built on the leg. (Interesting how the gene array may equate linearly to different positions of the animal body.)
1,971,000,000 YBN	305) The cryptomonads are a small group of flagellates, most of which have chloroplasts. They are common in freshwater, and also occur in marine and brackish habitats. Each cell has an anterior groove or pocket with typically two slightly unequal flagella at the edge of the pocket. Cryptomonads distinguished by the presence of characteristic extrusomes called ejectisomes, which consist of two connected spiral ribbons held under tension. If the cells are irritated either by mechanical, chemical or light stress, they discharge, propelling the cell in a zig-zag course away from the disturbance. Large ejectisomes, visible under the light microscope, are associated with the pocket; smaller ones occur elsewhere on the cell. Cryptomonads have one or two chloroplasts, except for Chilomonas which has leucoplasts and Goniomonas which lacks plastids entirely. These contain chlorophylls a and c, together with phycobilins and other pigments, and vary in color from brown to green. Each is surrounded by four membranes, and there is a reduced cell nucleus called a nucleomorph between the middle two. This indicates that the chloroplast was derived from a eukaryotic symbiont, shown by genetic studies to have been a red alga. A few cryptomonads, such as Cryptomonas, can form palmelloid stages, but readily escape the surrounding mucus to become free-living flagellates again. Cryptomonad flagella are inserted parallel to one another, and are covered by bipartite hairs called mastigonemes, formed within the endoplasmic reticulum and transported to the cell surface. Small scales may also be present on the flagella and cell body. The mitochondria have flat cristae, and mitosis is open; sexual reproduction has also been reported. Originally the cryptomonads were considered close relatives of the dinoflagellates because of their similar pigmentation. Later botanists treated them as a separate division, Cryptophyta, while zoologists treated them as the flagellate order Cryptomonadida. There is considerable evidence that cryptomonad chloroplasts are closely related to those of the heterokonts and haptophytes, and the three groups are sometimes united as the Chromista. However, the case that the organisms themselves are related is not very strong, and they may have acquired chloroplasts independently. Crytomonads often forms blooms in greater depths of lakes, or during winter beneath the ice. The cells are usually brownish in color, and have a slit-like furrow at the anterior. They are not known to produce any toxins and are used to feed small zooplankton, which is the food source for small fish in fish farming. Reproduction: Number of species: Size and shape: 10-50 μm in size and flattened in shape Mitochondria Christae: flat (which is unusual, as most chromalveolates have tubular christae). Cryotphyta may be more closely related to the Plant Kingdom and nearest Glaucophyta which also have flat christae. After one species of jakobid that changes tubular to flat christae, cryptophyta are the most ancient phylum to have flat christae.
1,874,000,000 YBN	61) Earliest large filamentous multicellular fossil (Grypania). Grypania spiralis is about 10 cm long, and is thought to be a filamentous algae. If eukaryote, Grypania would be the earliest filamentous multicellular eukaryote fossil. Other Grypania fossils that are 1 billion years old have been found in India. Grypania may be a eukaryote algae but may also be a gigantic cyanobacteria.	(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA
1,870,000,000 YBN	151) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the archaebacteria and eukaryote line separating here at 1,870 mybn (first eukaryote, and first protist).
1,800,000,000 YBN	46) End of the Banded Iron Formation.
1,700,000,000 YBN	6279) Earliest possible multicellular brown algae (Phaeophycaea) fossil. These fossils help support a limit for multicellular algal fossil (metaphyta) of at least 1700 million years ago. Earliest eukaryote fossil with both filamentous multicellularity and cell differentiation. This is also the earliest algae fossil with leaf structures.	(Tuanshanzi Formation) Jixian Area, North China
1,586,000,000 YBN	294) Genetic comparison shows the Protist Phylum "Percolozoa" (also called "Heterolobosea") (acrasid {oKrASiD} slime molds) evolving now. Percolozoa are a group of heterotrophic colourless protozoa, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and encysted stages. These are collectively referred to as amoeboflagellates, schizopyrenids, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia.
1,584,000,000 YBN	152) Amino acid sequence comparison shows Gram-negative and Gram-positive eubacteria here at 1,584 mybn (first Gram-positive bacteria).
1,570,000,000 YBN	197) The ancestor of all living eukaryotes divides into bikont and unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to all Chromalveolates, Excavates, Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.
1,520,000,000 YBN	202) Ribosomal RNA shows the Protist Phylum Amoebozoa (also called Ramicristates) which includes amoeba and slime molds evolving now. Feeding using pseudopods. The Amoebozoa are a major group of amoeboid protozoa, including the majority that move by means of internal cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are characteristically blunt and finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are unicellular, and are common in soils and aquatic habitats, with some found as symbiotes of other organisms, including several pathogens. The Amoebozoa also include the slime moulds, multinucleate or multicellular forms that produce spores and are usually visible to the unaided eye.
1,492,000,000 YBN	173)
1,380,000,000 YBN	220) Protists Opisthokonts (ancestor of Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).
1,300,000,000 YBN	38) (Filamentous) multicellularity in Eukaryotes evolves. The main difference between this organism and single-celled organisms is the way the cells stay fastened together after cell division. These multicellular organisms have undifferentiated cells in the multicellular stage (all cells in the haploid or diploid multicellular organism are made of one kind of cell). Some people cite the origin of Eukaryote multicellularity around the time of the origin of the first sponge. One difference between the multicellularity of sponges and algae and that sponges are free moving. Multicellularity seems to have arisen multiple times independently in eukaryotes: in fungi, animals, slime molds, charophyte algae (and their descendants, the land plants), and certain other green, red and brown algae.	(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada
1,300,000,000 YBN	67) (symbiotic or enslaved?) Plastids are any of the organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic plants that contain DNA, are bounded by a double membrane, and develop from a common type, the proplastid. Plastids also contain pigments and/or storage materials. They include aleuroplasts, amyloplasts, chloroplasts, chromoplasts, elaioplasts, and etioplasts.
1,300,000,000 YBN	209) Ribosomal RNA place first plant evolving here. This begins the plant kingdom. This first plant is a single cell, similar to glaucophytes. Cavelier-Smith and Ema E. -Y. Chao write: "Kingdom Plantae (sensuCavalier-Smith 1981) was originally defined as comprising all eukaryotes with chloroplasts possessing an envelope of two membranes and mitochondria with (irregularly) flat cristae. It originally included Viridaeplantae (green algae and embryophyte or "higher" plants), Rhodophyta (red algae), and Glaucophyta (e.g., Cyanophora, Glaucocystis). It was argued that all three groups diverged from a single primary symbiogenetic origin of plastids (Cavalier-Smith 1982). Both the monophyly of plastids and that of Glaucophyta and Plantae long met unreasonably strong opposition because of widespread false dogma that symbiogenesis is easy and because the three taxa usually do not group together in 18S rRNA trees. Now, however, derived features of all plastids compared with cyanobacteria and numerous molecular trees have led to the acceptance of plastid monophyly (Delwiche and Palmer 1998) and to the monophyly of glaucophyte algae. Furthermore, a sister relation between red algae and Viridaeplantae is strongly supported by concatenated protein trees for nuclei (Moreira et al. 2000; Baldauf et al. 2000) and chloroplasts (Martin et al. 1998; Turmel et al. 1999). The sister relationship between them and glaucophytes is convincingly, but significantly more weakly, supported by the same trees. Thus the case of Plantae shows that arguments from morphology and evolutionary considerations of protein targeting during symbiogenesis (Cavalier-Smith 2000b) gave the correct answer much more rapidly than single-gene trees, which still do not clearly group all three taxa together. In all our trees in the present study (and the recent tree of Edgcomb et al. 2002), Rhodophyta and Viridaeplantae are sisters, but with weak support. Glaucophyta wander aimlessly from one place to another in different trees." Ribosomal RNA place first plant evolving here, although glaucophytes, the earliest living plants (for many people) do not evolve until later.
1,300,000,000 YBN	219) Genetic comparison show Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae) evolves now. The red algae (Rhodophyta) are a large group of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. Most of the coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a major role in building coral reefs, belong here. Red algae such as dulse and nori are a traditional part of European and Asian cuisine and are used to make certain other products like agar and food additives. Many red algae have multicellular stages but these lack differentiated tissues and organs. Unlike most other algae, no cells with a flagellum are found in any member of the group. Unicellular forms typically live attached to surfaces rather than floating among the plankton, and both the larger female and smaller male gametes are non-motile, so that most have a low chance of fertilization. They have cell walls are made out of cellulose and thick gelatinous polysaccharides, which are the basis for most of the industrial products made from red algae. The chloroplasts of red algae are bound by a double membrane, like those of green plants; both groups (Archaeplastida) probably share a common origin. Their plastids formed by direct endosymbiosis of a cyanobacteria, and in red algae are pigmented with chlorophyll a and various proteins called phycobilins, which are responsible for their reddish color. Other algae that lack chlorophyll b appear to have acquired their chloroplasts from red algae, although their pigmentations are somewhat different. unicellular to multicellular (up to 1 m) mostly free-living but some parasitic or symbiotic, with chloroplasts containing phycobilins. Cell walls made of cellulose with mucopolysaccharides penetrated in many red algae by pores partially blocked by proteins (complex referred to as pit connections). Usually with separated phases of vegetative growth and sexual reproduction. Common and widespread, ecologically important, economically important (source of agar). No flagella. Ultrastructural identity: Mitochondria with flat cristae, sometimes associated with forming faces of dictyosomes. Thylakoids single, with phycobilisomes, plastids with peripheral thylakoid. During mitosis, nuclear envelope mostly remains intact but some microtubules of spindle extend from noncentriolar polar bodies through polar gaps in the nuclear envelope. Synapomorphy: No clear-cut feature available; possibly pit connections Composition: About 4,000 species. There are between 2500 and 6000 species in about 670 largely marine genera. Many red algae are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). There is a debate as to if Rhodophyta are plants or protists. 1. Red algae (phylum Rhodophyta) are chiefly marine multicellular algae that live in warmer seawater. 2. They are generally much smaller and more delicate that brown algae. 3. Some are filamentous, but most are branched, having a feathery, flat, or ribbon-like appearance. (Fig. 30.7) 4. Coralline algae are red algae with cell walls with calcium carbonate; they contribute to coral reefs. 5. Sexual reproduction involves oogamy but the sperm are non-flagellated. 6. Their chloroplasts resemble cyanobacteria by containing chlorophyll a and the pigment phycobilin. 7. The food reserve (floridean starch) resembles glycogen. 8. Like brown algae, red algae are economically important. a. Mucilaginous material in cell walls is source of agar used in drug capsules, dental impressions, cosmetics. b. In the laboratory, agar is a major microbiological media, and when purified, is a gel for electrophoresis. c. Agar is used in food preparation to keep baked goods from drying and to set jellies and desserts. The taxonomy of the algae is still in a state of flux.
1,300,000,000 YBN	323) Genetic comparison shows the oldest living Eukaryotes, the Phylum "Metamonada" evolving now. Metamonada (also called Excavates) includes Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS}, and Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ} {like Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u}). Most of these species have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. However, mitochondria are thought by many to be lost secondarily because parabasalids contain hydrogenosomes and the diplomonad Giardia intestinalis contains mitosomes, both of which are descended from mitochondria. Neither hydrogenosomes nor mitosomes have been found to contain mechanisms of oxidative phosphorylation. Hydrogenosomes and mitosomes occur among eukaryotes that have oxygen-independent ATP synthesis. The view is that the anaerobic eukaryotes lack aerobic mitochondria but contain anaerobic mitochondria . Hydrogenosomes were identified in 1973 and mitosomes in 1999. Includes Diplomonad "Giardia", and Parabasalid "Trichomonas vaginalis". The trophozoite form of Giardia does age and die. Most Metamonads reproduce asexually through closed (the nuclear membrane does not dissolve during mitosis) mitosis (and involves an external spindle? is pluromitosis?), but some species are "faculatively sexual" (can reproduce sexually in addition to asexually). So already by the time of these most ancient of the now living eukaryotes, sex had evolved. eat bacteria? Some people have this phylum as part of the group "Excavates" which includes the Phyla (Metamonada, Percolozoa, and Euglenozoa). The classification of the protists is far from complete and settled. There are currently more than one existing classification scheme for the protists. features of parabasalia and metamonada: gamete type: flagellated haplontic and diplontic condensed chromosomes in some species mitotic spindle: parabasalia: external metamonadea: internal polar structures: parabasalia: flagellar root me tamonadea: kinetosome flagella: parabasalia: 4 to many metamonadea: 2,4 heteroko nt, isokont, anisokont: anisokont (Anisokont flagella are those flagella that are unequal in length, form, or direction. ) (Isokont flagella are those flagella that are equal in length, form, and direction.) (The name heterokont refers to the characteristic form of these cells, which typically have two unequal flagella. The anterior or tinsel flagellum is covered with lateral bristles or mastigonemes, while the other flagellum is whiplash, smooth and usually shorter, or sometimes reduced to a basal body. The flagella are inserted subapically or laterally, and are usually supported by four microtubule roots in a distinctive pattern. ) flagellate stages: trophic life forms: unicellular: flagellated multicellular: none cell covering: naked
1,274,000,000 YBN	187) A eukaryote rhodophyte (red alga) is enslaved by a chromealveolate eukaryote to form a plastid in the chromealveolate. This kind of plastid is presumably inherited by all other chromalveolates (brown algae, diatoms, water molds, Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa, ciliates) that have plastids.
1,250,000,000 YBN	15) Differentiation in multicellular eukaryote. Gamete (or spore) cells and somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells, somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing), and are not omnipotent. Start of death by aging. Multicellular organisms are no longer all haploid or diploid gamete producing cells (or spore producing if haplodiplontic), but are made of gamete (or spore) producing cells in addition to somatic cells which copy asexually through mitosis. Now, in addition to being large multicell organisms, multicellular organisms can have differentiated cells that form a variety of different shaped structures, and perform different functions. A (diploid) zygote cell (the cell made by two merging gamete cells) now divides to form all cells in the differentiated multicellular organism, and is said to be "totipotent". Totipotent cells differentiate into "pluripotent" cells which can make most but not all cells in the organism. Pluripotent cells differentiate into "multipotent" (can make a number of cells) or "unipotent" cells (can only make one kind of cell).
1,250,000,000 YBN	88) Protists "Chromalveolates" {KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} (ancestor of Chromista {Haptophytes and Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ}} and Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS}).
1,250,000,000 YBN	201) Oldest widely accepted Rhodophyta (red algae) fossils (Bangiomorpha pubescens).	(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada
1,230,000,000 YBN	153) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the protist and plant line separating here at 1,230 mybn (first plant).
1,200,000,000 YBN	221) (Create a record for the evolution of multicellularity in fungi.)
1,200,000,000 YBN	6283) Earliest Green Algae fossil.	Siberia, Russia
1,200,000,000 YBN	6295) Earliest possible fossil worm trails. The trace-like fossils suggest the presence of vermiform (the long, thin, cylindrical shape of a worm), mucus-producing, motile organisms.	(Stirling Range Formation) Southwestern Australia
1,180,000,000 YBN	6280) Protists Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS} (ancestor of all Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS}). Three protist phyla (ciliates, apicomplexans, and dinoflaggellates) have an alveolar membrane system, which comprises flattened membrane-bound sacs (alveoli) lying beneath the outer cell membrane. This system and molecular sequence comparisons indicate that these three protist phyla are closely related to each other.
1,150,000,000 YBN	86) Genetic comparison shows The plant Phylum Glaucophyta evolving now. Some people categorize Glaucophyta in the kingdom Plantae instead of Protists, and label glaucophyta the most ancient living plants. The glaucophytes, also referred to as glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are a tiny group of freshwater algae. They are distinguished mainly by the presence of cyanelles, primitive chloroplasts which closely resemble cyanobacteria.
1,150,000,000 YBN	188) Genetic comparison shows Green Algae, composed of the two Phlya Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and Charophyta (Spirogyra) evolving now. The Green Algae are the large group of algae from which the embryophytes (higher plants) emerge. Some people place Green Algae in the Plant Kingdom, while others place them in the Protist Kingdom. Almost all forms have chloroplasts. They are bound by a double membrane, so presumably were acquired by direct endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria. All green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present flagella are typically anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules, but these are absent among the higher plants and charophytes. They usually have cell walls containing cellulose, and undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Sexual reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy). However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae, called prasinophytes. The first land plants most likely evolved from green algae. Here is where the green algae separate from the ancestor of the first land plants. Spirogyra reproduce through conjugation, which either was inherited from prokaryotes or evolved a second time in eukaryotes. Some filamentous green algae (e.g. cladophora) are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). 1. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae) contains about 7,000 species. 2. Most live in the ocean but are more likely found in fresh water; they can even be found on moist land. 3. Green algae are believed to be closely related to the first plants because both of these groups a. have a cell wall that contains cellulose, b. possess chlorophylls a and b, and c. store reserve food as starch inside of the chloroplast. 4. Green algae are not always green; some have pigments that give them an orange, red, or rust color. 5. Body organizations include single cells, colonies, filaments and multicellular forms. C. Flagellated Green Algae 1. Chlamydomonas is a unicellular green alga less than 25 cm long. (Fig. 30.3) 2. It has a cell wall and a single, large, cup-shaped chloroplast with a pyrenoid for starch synthesis. 3. The chloroplast contains a light-sensitive eyespot (stigma) that directs the cell to light for photosynthesis. 4. Two long whip-like flagella project from the anterior end to propel the cell toward light. 5. When growth conditions are favorable, Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually with zoospores. 6. When growth conditions are unfavorable, Chlamydomonas reproduces sexually. a. Gametes from two different mating types join to form a zygote. b. A heavy wall forms around the zygote; a resistant zygospores survives until conditions are favorable. c. Some are heterogametes similar to sperm and egg that stores food, a condition called oogamy. d. In most, gametes are identical, a condition called isogamy. D. Filamentous Green Algae 1. Cell division in one plane produces end-to-end chains of cells or filaments. 2. Spirogyra is a filamentous algae found on surfaces of ponds and streams. a. It has ribbon-like spiral chloroplasts. (Fig. 30.4) b. Two strands may unite in conjugation and exchange genetic material, forming a diploid zygote. c. The zygotes withstand winter; in spring they undergo meiosis to produce haploid filaments. 3. Oedogonium is another filamentous algae. a. It has cylindrical cells with netlike chloroplasts. b. During sexual reproduction, there is a definite egg and sperm. E. Multicellular Green Algae 1. Multicellular Ulva is called sea lettuce because of its leafy appearance. (Fig. 30.5) 2. The thallus (body) is two cells thick but can be a meter long. 3. Ulva has an alternation of generations life cycle, as do plants, but the generations look alike. 4. The gametes look alike (isogametes) and the spores are flagellated. 5. In true plants, one generation is dominant, sperm and eggs are produced, and spores lack flagella. F. Colonial Green Algae 1. Volvox is a hollow sphere with thousands of cells arranged in a single layer. (Fig. 30.6) 2. Volvox cells resembles Chlamydomonas cells; a colony arises as if daughter cells fail to separate. 3. Volvox cells cooperate when flagella beat in a coordinated fashion. 4. Some cells are specialized forming a new daughter colony within the parental colony. 5. Daughter colonies are inside a parent colony until an enzyme dissolves part of a wall so it can escape. 6. Sexual reproduction involves oogamy Order Chlorococcales, probably includes the first coccoidal green algae, probably even the earliest eukaryotes, but unequivocal indentification in the Precambrien is unlikely to be achived. Spirogyra reproduce through conjugation, which either was inherited from prokaryotes or evolved a second time in eukaryotes. If inherited from prokaryotes, then spirogrya would be very old although the fossil record and Ribosomal RNA put them late compared to other algae.
1,100,000,000 YBN	75) Ribosomal RNA shows most ancient living fungi phylum "Microsporidia" evolving now. Microsporidia are parasites of animals, now considered to be extremely reduced fungi.
1,100,000,000 YBN	6284) Oldest molecular fossil evidence of Dinoflagellates.
1,080,000,000 YBN	87) Genetic comparison shows the Excavate Discicristates {DiSKIKriSTATS} evolving now. Discicristates is the ancestor of protists which have mitochondria with discoidal shaped cristae and includes euglenids, leishmania, trypanosomes, and kinetoplastids. Some euglenids exhibit colonialism and have a cell covering ("pellicle").
1,080,000,000 YBN	97) The eye spot probably evolved from a plastid, and plastids may have only formed symbiotic relationships in euglenozoa much later, since the plastids in euglenozoa are enclosed in 3 membranes (the same as chloroplasts in plants), they are thought to have been formed from captured green algae which evolve much later. Halophilic archaebacteria, such as Halobacterium salinarum, use sensory rhodopsins (SRs) for phototaxis (positive or negative movement along a light gradient or vector), and some cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena, Synechocystis) can slowly orient along a light vector. Eukaryotes are the first organisms to evolve the ability to follow light direction in three dimensions in open water. The eukaryotic sensory integration, sensory processing and the speed and mechanics of tactic responses is fundamentally different from that found in prokaryotes. Both single-celled and multi-cellular eukaryotic phototactic organisms have a fixed shape, are polarized, swim in a spiral and use cilia for swimming and phototactic steering. Three-dimensional phototaxis can be found in five out of the six eukaryotic major groups (opisthokonts, Amoebozoa, plants, chromalveolates, excavates, rhizaria).
1,080,000,000 YBN	203) Colonialism evolves in Eukaryote. Euglenozoa may be the oldest eukaryote to exhibit colonialism. Perhaps eukaryote colonialism is partially or fully inherited from prokaryotes, but colonialism may have evolved independently again in eukaryotes.
1,050,000,000 YBN	169) Protists Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called Heterokonts) (ancestor of all brown and golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu)). Some people group stemenopiles and alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS} together in the supergroup chromalveolates {KrOM-aLVEO-leTS), having a single common ancestor. The strameopiles consist of some 9,000 species including diatoms, brown and golden algae (the Chrysophytes), some heterotrophic flagellates, labyrinthulids (slime nets), and Oomycetes and Hyphochytridiomycetes (formerly classified as fungi). A few stramenopiles form complex, rigid colonies and may reach extremely large sizes. It may be difficult to imagine that diatoms and kelp are closely related. There similarity is based on the fact that that almost all have unique, complex, three-part tubular hairs on the flagella at some stage in the life cycle. The name Stramenopiles (Latin stamen, "straw"; pilius "hair") refers to the appearance of these hairs. Stramenopiles are found in a variety of habitats. Freshwater and marine plankton are rich in diatoms and chrysophytes, and they can also occur in moist soils, sea ice, snow and glaciers. Stramenopiles have even been found living in clouds in the atmosphere. Heterotrophic free-living stramenopiles are also found in marine, estuarine, and freshwater habitats. A few are symbiotic on algae in marine or stuarine environments. Many produce calcite or silicon scales, shells, cysts, or test, which are preserved in the fossil record. The oldest of these fossils are from the Cambrian/Precambrian boundary about 550 million years ago.
1,050,000,000 YBN	304) Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta" Coccolithophores {KOK-o-lit-O-FORZ}evolving now. Fossils of this group date back into the Jurassic (201-145 my), where they first become abundant, and some possible fossils of coccolithophores have been recovered from the Pennsylvanian (318-299 my) The group made a sudden and rapid appearance of new forms in the early Jurassic (201-176 my), and reached its greatest abundance in the Late Cretaceous (99-65 my). Near the end of the Cretaceous (65 my), the coccolithophores suffered a mass extinction of groups; two-thirds of the 50 genera disappear at that time, though many new groups appear in the Paleocene (65-55 my).
1,040,000,000 YBN	313) Protist Phylum "Dinoflagellata" evolve (Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS}). Dinoflagellates are typically unicellular but sometimes filementous or coenocytic {SE-nO-SiTiK} (a multinucleate cytoplasmic mass enclosed by a single cell wall, found in slime molds, certain fungi and algae). Dinoflagellates typically have two flagella and are found in both marine and fresh water environments worldwide. The name "dinoflagellate" refers to the distinctive whirling motion of the swimming cells. Photosynthetic species are responsible for being an enormous primary (food source), but many species, whether photosynthetic of not, can also be predators. Some species produce potent toxins that can be a cause of morbidity and mortality from direct exposure or indirectly as a result of accumulation in top predators. Dinosterane, derived from dinosterol produced by dinoflagellates, occurs in the 1.1 Ga Nonesuch Formation, in the United States. The earliest undisputed, structural fossils of dinoflagellates are cysts dating from the Triassic (251-201 Ma), with a few likely Permian records. Some Silurian (c410 Ma) fossils have been attributed to the group but the relation is uncertain. Acritarchs are microfossils with no known affinity. Some people have tried to link acritarchs with dinoflagellates. Some later acritarchs from the Jurassic and Cretaceous, have been shown to be dinoflagellate cysts and so are no longer treated like acritarchs. A correlation has been noted between the presence of triaromatic dinosteroids and acritarch abundance, implying that these acritarchs may be the cysts of ancestral dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates are the only group currently known to have tertiary plastids (when an alga containing a plastid of secondary endosymbiotic origin, for example a chromist, is engulfed and reduced to a photosynthetic organelle). Tertiary plastids in dinoflagellates have been acquired from haptophyte and prasinophyte algae and from diatoms. Currently there are five plastids known in dinoflagellates, each with its own evolutionary history.
1,005,000,000 YBN	306) Earliest Golden algae (xanthophyte) fossil, "Palaeovaucheria".	(Lakhanda Group) Siberia
1,000,000,000 YBN	154) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the plant and fungi line separating here at 1,000 mybn (first fungi).
1,000,000,000 YBN	223) Genetic comparison places the fungi phylum "Chytridiomycota" evolving now. Chytridiomycoa includes all Chytridiomycetes {KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ}). The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi and are mostly saprobic (feed on dead species, degrading chitin and keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in freshwater).
1,000,000,000 YBN	324) Phylum Choanozoa (Mesomycetozoea {me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u}/DRIPs, Choanoflagellates) evolves. This phylum contains the first protozoans (Choanoflagellates), thought to be the ancestor of sponges.
1,000,000,000 YBN	325) The Protists "Mesomycetozoaea" (DRIPs) evolve. The Mesomycetozoea or DRIP clade are a small group of protists, mostly parasites of fish and other animals. Most were originally classified in various groups of fungi, protozoa, and algae. However, in molecular trees they are closely related to both animals and fungi. The name DRIP is an acronym for the first protozoa identified as members of the group - Dermocystidium, the Rosette agent, Ichthyophonus, and Psorospermium.
1,000,000,000 YBN	585)
985,000,000 YBN	309) Protist Phylum Oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu} (includes the Class Oomycetes) evolves (Water molds).
965,000,000 YBN	155) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the fungi and pseudocoeles lines separating here at 965 mybn (first pseudocoel and first animal).
900,000,000 YBN	326) The Choanozoans "Choanoflagellates" and "Acanthoecida" evolve. The choanoflagellates are a group of flagellate protozoa. They are considered to be the closest relatives of the animals, and in particular may be the direct ancestors of sponges. Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of hairlike protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar (choanos in Greek). The flagellum pulls water through the collar, and small food particles are captured by the microvilli and ingested. It also pushes the free-swimming cells along, as in animal sperm, whereas most other flagellates are pulled by their flagella.
900,000,000 YBN	6281) Protists Rhizaria {rI-ZaR-E-u} (ancestor of all Radiolaria, Foraminifera and Cercozoa). Rhizaria is a heterogeneous assemblage of protists, which includes the majority of filose and reticulose amoebae and most actinopods, plus two parasitic lineages and some flagellates. The term Rhizaria was proposed by Cavalier-Smith (2002), and refers to the root-like filose and reticulose pseudopodia and/or axopodia characterizing the majority of the taxa included in it. The existence of this supergroup is based exclusively on molecular evidence that accumulated since the demonstration of the close relationship between euglyphid amoebae and chlorarachniophytes (Bhattacharya et al. 1995), and their grouping with cercomonad and thaumatomonad flagellates in SSU rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith and Chao 1997). The Rhizaria are also supported by analyses of actin (Keeling 2001, Nikolaev et al. 2004), polyubiquitin (Archibald et al. 2003), and RNA polymerase II (Longet et al. 2003) genes. Rhizaria includes core cercozoans (comprising among others the Euglyphida, Chlorarachniophyta, Phaeodarea, and Desmothoracida), some parasites of plants (Phytomyxea) and animals (Haplosporidia), the Foraminifera, Gromia, and radiolarians (Acantharea + Polycystinea + Taxopodida) (Nikolaev et al. 2004).
855,000,000 YBN	286) Eukaryote multicellularity evolves. Multicellularity allows larger sized organisms to evolve. Metazoan multicellularity is different from colonialism (where independent cells of the same species work together and function as one unit), because one zygote produces all the cells in the organism.
850,000,000 YBN	81) First animal and first metazoan evolve (Porifera: sponges). Metazoans are multicellular, but their cells perform different functions and originate from one cell (verify). There are only three major kinds of metazoans: sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians (which include all insects and vertebrates). Sponges are the first organisms whose DNA codes for more than one kind of cell. Sponges have 3 different cell types. Some cells form a body wall, some digest food, some form a skeletal frame. All sponge cells are totipotent and are capable of regrowing a new sponge. Mixtures of sponge cells of two species reconstitute into the separate sponge species. The process involves cell-cell recognition, which is a basic attribute for building and retaining a multicellular body. The molecular mechanisms that guide this process involve many proteoglycans (compounds made of 95% polysaccharide and 5% protein) on the cell surface. The two major subkingdoms of the Kingdom Animalia are Radiata (the radiates) and Bilateria (the bilaterians). Sponges have no nerve cells or muscles. Like plants their movement is at the cellular level. Sponges live by passing a constant current of eater through their body from which they filter food particles. The sponges have no obvious symmetry while Cnidarians have radial symmetry, and Ctenophores have biradial symmetry. Porifera have a simple level of cellular integration and are loosely constructed, but all other later animals including cnidarians and ctenophores have cells which are grouped together as tissues that are arranged in layers. All sponges are capable of sexual and asexual reproduction. There is a large diversity of sexual reproductive sequences in sponges. Sperm are formed from choanocytes, and eggs from choanocytes or archaeocytes. Generally, sperm are contained in spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte chambers transformed by spermatogenesis. Eggs are distributed throughout the mesohyl. Some sponges are oviparous (zygote develops outside the body). Following gamete release, fertilization and development occur externally. Other sponges are viviparous, with fertilization and evelopment both occurring in the mesohyl. (Is a spermatic cyst a gonad (testis/testicle)?)
850,000,000 YBN	224) Genetic comparison shows Fungi division "Zygomycota" (bread molds, pin molds, microsporidia,...) evolving now.
850,000,000 YBN	517) Male gonad (testis {TeSTiS}/testicle) evolves in a sponge. In sponges sperm are contained in spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte chambers transformed by spermatogenesis, but ova are distributed throughout the mesohyl. (It's interesting how similar the sponge emitting sperm looks like the animal penis emitting sperm. One view is that the sperm and ovum of multicellular animals are like protists that grew material around them. That metazoans, including humans, evolved from the protist ovum and sperm out. So in this sense, the center of evolution is really the gonad - all later appendages - muscle, nervous, circular system are all accessories built around those ancient protists, the animal gamete. So the early evolution of the gonad before most other organs, may be like a first added barrier of protection for the gamete cells.)
804,000,000 YBN	319) Genetic comparison shows that the Prostist Phylum "Radiolaria" evolves now. Radiolarians are protozoans found in the upper layers of all oceans. Radiolarians, are mostly spherically symmetrical, and known for their complex and beautifully tiny skeletons, called "tests". Tests are usually made of silica (SiO2). Radiolarian skeletons are used to analyze the layers of the sedimentary record. The earliest radiolarian fossils date to the earliest Cambrian (540 mybn).
804,000,000 YBN	321) Ribosomal RNA shows Protist Phylum "Foraminifera" (also known as "Granuloreticulosea") evolve now. Forminifera are catagorized as amoeboid because they have pseudopods. The Foraminifera, or forams for short, are a large group of amoeboid protists with reticulating pseudopods, fine strands that branch and merge to form a dynamic net. They typically produce a shell, or test, which can have either one or multiple chambers, some becoming quite elaborate in structure. About 250 000 species are recognized, both living and fossil. They are usually less than 1 mm in size, but some are much larger, and the largest recorded specimen reached 19 cm. As fossils, foraminifera are extremely useful.
780,000,000 YBN	79) Placozoans look like amoebas but are multicellular. The only known species in this phylum is Trichoplax adhaerens. Trichoplax lives in the sea and feeds on single celled organisms, mostly algae. It has only 4 cell types compared to the more than 200 cell types in humans. Trichoplax has two main cell layers, like a cnidarian or ctenophore. Between these two layers are a few contractile cells that are similar to muscle cells, however placozoans lack muscle and nerve cells. Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene.
767,000,000 YBN	312) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of Eukaryote Phylum "Ciliophora" (Ciliates) evolves. The ciliates are one of the most important groups of protists, common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, and soils.
767,000,000 YBN	314) Genetic comparison shows that the Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa" {a-Pi-KoM-PleK-Su} (Malaria, Toxoplasmosis) evolve.
750,000,000 YBN	41) Cells that group as tissues that are arranged in layers evolve in metazoans.
750,000,000 YBN	83) First nerve cell (neuron), and nervous system evolves in the ancestor of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This leads to the first brain. Earliest touch and sound detection. The earliest still living organisms that contain a neuron cell are the ctenophora. Simple and sessile cnidarians have no sense organs, but they do have sensory cells in both tissues that respond to light, chemical or mechanical stimuli. These sensory cells are often structurally similar to those of vertebrates. Each has a cilium that protrudes into the water. The sensory cells synapse (are closely spaced to) with nerve cells, allowing the animal to generally respond to stimuli at a distance instead of responding at the site of the stimulus. Some Cnidarians have ganglia, aggregations of nerve cells.
750,000,000 YBN	96) Muscle cells evolve in metazoans. According to genetic comparison, both the earliest known muscle and nerve cells are found in Ctenophora. Ctenophores move by cilia, but Cnidarians move by muscle contraction. However, Cnidaria lack true muscle cells; their muscle fibers are always extensions of an epithelial cell. Ctenophores have true muscle cells. (Describe earlier mechanisms of movement.)
750,000,000 YBN	225) Closeable mouth evolves in metazoans.
750,000,000 YBN	414) Radiata Ctenophores {TeNOFORZ} evolve (comb jellies). Cells are grouped as tissues. Ctenophora are the earliest still living phylum to have nerve and muscle cells. Like jellyfish, the bodies of Ctenophora are built from only two layers of tissue, their main body cavity is also the digestive chamber, and they have a simple nerve net. Hair-like cilia propel the ctenophora instead of the pulsating muscles which propel jellyfish.
750,000,000 YBN	458) Genetic comparison shows Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota" (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) evolving now. Glomeromycota {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu}are also know by their class name Glomeromycetes {GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS}
713,000,000 YBN	6320) Earliest chemical biomarker evidence of animals (metazoans), sterans associated with demosponges.	(Huqf Supergroup) South Oman Salt Basin, Oman
700,000,000 YBN	82) Radiata Cnidarians {NIDAREeNS} evolve (sea anemones, corals, jellyfish). Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} (or Coelenterata {SeLeNTeroTe}) are a phylum of invertebrate animals composed of the sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and hydroids. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical. The mouth, located at the center of one end of the body, opens into a gastrovascular cavity, which is used for digestion and distribution of food, there is no an anus. Cnidarians have a body wall composed of three layers: an outer epidermis, an inner gastrodermis, and a middle mesogloea. Tentacles encircle the mouth and are used in part for food capture. Specialized stinging structures, called nematocysts, are a characteristic of the phylum and are borne in the tentacles and often in other body parts. These contain a coiled fiber that can be extruded suddenly. Some nematocysts contain toxic substances and are defense mechanisms, while others are adhesive, helping to anchor the animal or to entangle prey. Cnidarians have two alternate body plans, the polyp and the medusa. A sea anemone or Hydra is a typical polyp: non-moving, mouth on top, bottom end fixed to the ground like a plant. A jellyfish is a typical medusa, swimming through the open sea. Many cnidarians have both polyp and medusa forms, alternating them through life cycle, like caterpillar and butterfly. Polyps often reproduce by budding vegetatively, like plants. A new baby polyp grows on the side of a freshwater Hydra, eventually breaking off as a separate individual clone of the parent. In many marine relatives of Hydra, the clone doesn't break off but stays attached, and becomes a branch like a plant. Sometimes more than one kind of polyp grows on the same polyp tree, specialized for different roles, such as feeding, defense, or reproduction. Cnidarians have a nervous system which is a network, not centralized into a brain, ganglia or major nerve trunks. They also have muscles which are contracted to propel them. Their digestive organ is a single cavity with only one opening which is both mouth and anus. They have no circulatory system. All cnidarians have cells called cnidocytes, each with its own cell-sized harpoon called a cnida. All cnidarians have cnidae, and only cnidarians have them. Once triggered the harpoon cell cannot be used again, but are constantly replaced. Simple and sessile cnidarians have no sense organs, but they do have sensory cells in both tissues that respond to light, chemical or mechanical stimuli. These sensory cells are often structurally similar to those of vertebrates. Each has a cilium that protrudes into the water. The sensory cells synapse (are closely spaced to) with nerve cells, allowing the animal to generally respond to stimuli at a distance instead of responding at the site of the stimulus. Medusae and complex motile colonies of Cnidaria have more complex sense organs: the statocyts detect the degree of tilt of the body, and the ocelli are light receptors. Cnidarian ocelli range from patches of photoreceptors alternating with pigment cells, to complex structures in which the light receptors have a cup shaped shield of pigmented cells behind them and are covered by a lens formed from cytoplasmic extensions from neighboring cells (see image). (A lens focuses a wider field of view onto a small space. The eye-images captured and perhaps some day seen by cnidarian ocelli must be very low resolution. Determine if the pigments allow for detecting different colors or light intensities.) Porifera (sponges have no obvious symmetry), while Cnidarians are radially symmetrical and Ctenophores are biradially symmetrical. There are differences between Cnidaria and Ctenophora. In Cnidaria, cells have a single flagellum or cilium, while the cells of Ctenophora have large numbers of cilia. Stinging cells called cnidocytes, are unique to cnidarians, and adhesive cells called "coloblasts" are unique to Ctenophora. Ctenophora swim by using arrays of fused cilia arranged in eight rows, while the Cnidaria move by means of muscle contraction of an epithelial cell. Cnidarians lacxk true muscle cells. The muscle fibers in Cnidaria are always extensions of an epithelial cell. Ctenophora have true muscles. Unlike Cnidaria, Ctenophora have gonoducts and gonopores by which gametes exit the body. Cnidaria do not have complex reproductive organs; gonads develop in the body wall or mesenteries by differentiation of interstitial cells. In many species the gonads are resorbed after spawning has occurred. Gonads may be formed in the tissue and gametes released directly into the water or gonads may be endodermal and the gametes released into the water through breaks in the body wall or through the mouth. Genders are usually separate, but some species have both are hermaphroditic (produce both ova and sperm). Sperm are released into the water and fertilization is usually external. In species that brood their eggs, fertilization occurs at the brooding site, which may be in the gastrovascular cavity or on the outside of the body. Sperm are often attracted to the eggs by highly specific chemicals. Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the gastrovascular cavity, but once the food is reduced to particles small enough to enter the digestive cells of the gastrodermis, digestion is completed inside the cell (intracellularly). (Describe how oxygen is obtained: filtered from water?)
700,000,000 YBN	226) Genetic comparison shows the second largest group of Fungi, the phylum "Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu} (most mushrooms, rusts, club fungi) evolving now. The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. Essentially the sibling group of the Ascomycota, it contains some 30,000 species (37% of the described fungi)
700,000,000 YBN	227) Genetic comparison shows the largest Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} (yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, morels, sac fungi) evolving now. 47,000 described species.
700,000,000 YBN	523) In Cnidaria, gonads develop in the body wall or mesentaries by differentiation of interstitial cells. Cnidaria have no complex reproductive organs.
680,000,000 YBN	222)
675,000,000 YBN	156) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the pseudocoel and schizocoel lines separating here at 675 mybn (first schizocoel).
650,000,000 YBN	69)
650,000,000 YBN	229)
630,000,000 YBN	107) Bilateral species evolve (two sided symmetry). Earliest animal eye and brain (ganglion, memory). First triploblastic species (third embryonic layer: the mesoderm). Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes and all later metazoans are triploblastic. A third embryonic layer, the mesoderm, lies between the extoderm and endoderm. This layer increases the options for the development of organs with specific functions, formed by the association of tissues of various kinds. The earliest animal eye and brain (ganglion, memory) develop in bilateral segmented worm. All species after this capture, store, and can remember images and other sensory stimulation. These eye and thought images can be captured externally and show what each organism sees, hears, thinks, etc. The evolution of a "thought-screen", that is a second screen where images can be drawn internally probably does not happen until later. Writing an image to the eye-screen produces an image the organism actually sees, but writing an image to the thought-screen produces an image the organism can only sees in their mind. (verify) In bilaterians food enters in one end (mouth) and waste exists at the opposite end (anus). There is an advantage for sense organs: light, sound, touch, smell, taste detection to be located on the head near the mouth to help with catching food. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians PHYLUM "Acoelomorpha" - acoelomorphs ORDER Acoela - acoels ORDER Nemertodermatida - nemertodermatids
630,000,000 YBN	459) Cylindrical gut, anus, and through-put of food evolves in a bilaterian. All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans except the Phylum Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut with an anus, mouth, and through-put of food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta are the earliest bilaterians with an anus.
630,000,000 YBN	532) An intestine evolves in bilaterian. Since the gut of this organism has no anus, undigested food must be regurgitated through the mouth. This restriction limits the possibility of development of regions specialized for particular functions in the intestine. The intestine is lined with a monolayer of endodermal cells (gastrodermis) which carry out some or all of the processes of digestion and absorption. Partial extracellular digestion may occur, with enzymes being secreted in the pharynx or by the gastrodermal cells. The semi-digested material is phagocytosed (engulfed) by the intestinal cells, in which final digestion occurs.
630,000,000 YBN	593) The genital pore, vagina, and uterus evolve in a bilaterian.
630,000,000 YBN	660) The penis evolves in a bilaterian.
630,000,000 YBN	6311) Earliest extant bilaterian: Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and nemertodermatida). The phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and nemertodermatida) is the oldest surviving bilaterian. This begins the Subkingdom "Bilateria". Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track, anus and coelom. Flatworms have no lungs or gills and breathe through their skin. Flatworms also have no circulating blood and so their branched gut presumably transports nutrients to all parts of the body. (Describe nerve, muscle. Sound, pain, light, smell, touch detection/recognition?)
625,000,000 YBN	6328) Protists "Cercozoa".
610,000,000 YBN	95) Fluid filled cavity, the coelom (SEleM) evolves in an early bilaterian. In most bilaterally symmetrical invertebrates an internal cavity exists between the body wall and the gut wall.
600,000,000 YBN	91) Start of Ediacaran {EDEoKRiN} soft-bodied invertebrate fossils. Because the Ediacaran animals are soft-bodied, they are infrequently preserved. The sudden appearance of Ediacaran fossils may relate to the accumulation of free oxygen in the atmosphere. As atmospheric oxygen increases, so does oxygen in the sea. The accumulation of free oxygen may permit oxidative metabolism in organisms. Some of the earliest Ediacaran fossils date to at least 600 million years ago in Sonora, Mexico, and there are discoidal (circular or elliptical) fossils in Kazakhstan that are possibly cnidarian that date all the way to 770 mya. However, some people claim that these discoidal fossils are actually microbial mats made by cyanobacteria which flourish on the sea floor in the absence of grazing and burrowing organisms, but the development of efficient grazing greatly reduces their development in all but extreme environments.	Sonora, Mexico|Adelaide, Australia| Lesser Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhsta
600,000,000 YBN	98) Red blood cells and blood channels evolve in a bilaterian. Nemerteans, cylindrical worms, have a network of blood channels in the mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue between organs) but have no heart or pumping vessel. First blood vessels. Some coelomates have a series of channels or blood spaces outside the coelic epithelium, that form a circulatory system, often with contractible walls to the larger vessels that act as pumps.
600,000,000 YBN	231) Genetic comparison shows the Basidiomycota Fungi "Ustilaginomycetes" (corn smut fungus) and "Hymenomycetes" (white rot fungus) evolving now.
590,000,000 YBN	70)
590,000,000 YBN	93) Bilaterians Protostomes evolve, ancestor of all arthropods and molluscs. Many protostome phyla evolve at this time. Protostomes are divided into two major groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu} and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}. The Ecdysozoa include Priapulids {PrIaPYUliDZ}, Nematodes, Tardigrades {ToRDiGRADZ}, Onychophorens {oniKoFereNS}, and the arthropods {which is a large group including all crustaceans and insects}. The Lophotrochozoa, is subdivided into the Platyzoa {PlaTiZOu}, which includes rotifers, gastrotrics and Platyhelminthes, and the Trochozoa, which includes bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu}, Phoronids {FerOniDZ}, brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Entoprocts {eNtoProKTS}, molluscs and annelids.
580,000,000 YBN	131) First shell (or skeleton) evolves in unicellular protists. The first known shell belongs to unicellular protists ciliates called the tintinnids. This shell is called a lorica. These fossils are thought to be in shallow marine waters, not far from the coastline. Similar modes of skeleton formation have evolved independently in different groups to fulfill similar needs.	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
580,000,000 YBN	165) Earliest animal and earliest bilaterian fossil, Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length. First fossil of organism with bilateral symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut and anus.	(Doushantuo Formation) China
580,000,000 YBN	318) Protostome Infrakingdom Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolves. Ecdysozoa are animals that molt (lose their outer skins) as they grow. Ecdysozoa include: the Phylum "Chaetognatha" (Arrow Worms), the Superphylum "Aschelminthes", containing the 5 Phlya: "Kinorhyncha" (kinorhynchs) "Loricifera" (loriciferans) "Nematoda" (round worms) "Nematomorpha" (horsehair worms), "Priapulida" (priapulids) the Superphlyum "Panarthropoda" containing the 3 Phyla: "Arthropoda" (arthropods: insects, shell fish) "Onychophora" (onychophorans) "Tardigrada" (tardigrades)
580,000,000 YBN	331) Protosome Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of all brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, and molluscs. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831 (bryozoans) PHYLUM Entoprocta (Nitsche, 1869) (entoprocts) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
580,000,000 YBN	6282) Earliest Ciliate fossil.	(Doushantuo Formation) Guizhou, South China
580,000,000 YBN	6293) Earliest cnidarian fossil.	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
578,000,000 YBN	92) First nematocyst (stinging cells) evolve on Jellyfish(?).
575,000,000 YBN	139) Earliest sea pen fossil ("Charnia"). Sea pens (Class Pennatulacea) are Cnidarnian Anthozoans.	(Drook Formation) Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland
570,000,000 YBN	89) Protostome Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Trochozoa evolve. Ancestor of all Bryozoans, Nemerteans, Phoronids, Brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Molluscs and Annelids.
570,000,000 YBN	94) Fossil animal embryo.	(Doushantuo formation) China
570,000,000 YBN	105) Bilaterians Deuterostomes evolve. This is the ancestor of all Echinoderms (iKIniDRMS } (Phylum Echinodermata: sea cucumbers, sea urchins, starfish), hemichordates (Phylum Hemichordata: acorn worms), and Chordates (Phylum Chordata: all tunicates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et al., 2001 PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms PHYLUM Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. - hemichordates;acorn worms;tongue worms PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates
570,000,000 YBN	311) Bilaterian phylum Chaetognatha {KE-ToG-nutu} (Arrow Worms) evolves. The placement (phylogeny) of the Chaetognatha within the Bilateria is currently somewhat uncertain. Some place them as protostomes, others as deuterostomes. Some people group them with the Ecdysozoa, others as Lophotrochozoa, others as an independent group in between Ecdysozoa and Lophotrochozoa. Chaetognatha appears close to the base of the protostome tree in most studies of their molecular phylogeny. This may be evidence that protostomes descend from a deuterostome ancestor, like a chaetognath. Chaetognaths are bilaterally symmetrical enterocoelous animals, with an elongated cylndrical body; they are usually colourless, transparent or slightly opaque. The body is divided in three parts by internal partitioning: head, trunk and tail. The head is slightly rounded and separated from the trunk by a constricted neck. Each side of the head bears a group of curved grasping hooks and one or two rows of teeth, called the anterior and posterior teeth; the hooks and teeth are made of chitin. A pair of uniquely arranged pigmented eyespots is present. The earliest Chaetognath fossil is from around 520 mya. (It seems likely that the spicules of sponges made of aragonite or calcite evolved before chitin teeth which are found in chaetognatha and bryozoa, and so perhaps they evolved independently of each other.)
570,000,000 YBN	327) Protostome Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Platyzoa {PlaT-i-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of rotifers, gastrotrichs and Platyhelminthes (flatworms).
570,000,000 YBN	345) Deuterostome Coelomorpha Phylum Hemichordonia evolves (pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS}, acorn worms). Adult Pterobranchs are sessile, fastening to solid structures, but the younger (or larval) form is free swimming, and is thought to have retained this form before evolving into tunicates and then the first fish.
570,000,000 YBN	346) Deuterostome Coelomorpha Phylum Echinodermata (sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, star fish) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et al., 2001 INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora (Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms PHYLUM Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. - hemichordates (Are the majority of cells in Echinoderms, muscle cells? Is that hat people eat?)
565,000,000 YBN	347) Deuterostome Phylum Chordata evolves. Chordates are a very large group that include all tunicates {TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. The most primitive living chordate is the tunicate. Chordates get their name from the notochord, the cartilage rod that runs along the back of the animal, in the embryo if not in the adult.
565,000,000 YBN	348) Earliest extant chordate: Deuterstome Chordata Subphylum Tunicata evolves (tunicates {sea squirts}). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck, 1816 - tunicates SUBPHYLUM Cephalochordata - lancelets SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
565,000,000 YBN	6294) Earliest cnidarian (anthozoa) coral fossil.	(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China
560,000,000 YBN	117) Earliest chordate fossil.	(Flinders Ranges, 490 km north of Adelaide) Australia
560,000,000 YBN	349) First fish.
560,000,000 YBN	6290) Ealiest extant fish, Lancelets {laNSleTS} (also called amphioxus {aMFEoKSeS}). Deuterostome Chordata Subphylum Cephalochordata (lancelets {laNSleTS}) evolve. Lancelets are the most primitive chordates to have a liver and a kidney, which are not found in hemichordates or tunicates.
560,000,000 YBN	6292) Oldest mollusc fossil.
560,000,000 YBN	6318) Earliest evidence of animals eating other animals (predation). Earliest fossil animal shell (or skeleton). The evolution of chewing and then of animal predation starts an "arms race" that rapidly transforms ecosystems around the Earth. So in this sense hard chitin teeth evolve first and then the shell evolves as an advantage to survival. The earliest animal shells are made by tiny organisms with simple tubelike skeletons, such as Cloudina and Sinotubulites. Cloudina are worms that ... The shell of Cloudina is made of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Predatory bore holes have been found in Cloudina shells. This is the oldest evidence of predation known. The earliest animal shells are agglutinated tubes built of foreign objects by the animals inhabiting them, an example being the worm Onuphionella, with its collection of mica flakes lining its shelter. The appearance of the small shelly fossils and drrp burrows are correlated with a decline in stromatolites. Before the appearance of small invertebrate animals, nothing fed on cyanobacterial mats. Some small shelly fossils must be primitive molluscs that graze on stromatolites. Stromatolites survive today only in environments that are hostile to grazing invertebrates. Tehse include lagoons too salty for grazing snails like Shark Bay, Australia, and shallow channels in the Bahamas where currents are too strong for clinging invertebrates. The soft-bodied multicellular (but non-skeletonized) Ediacaran fauna appear starting around 600 mybn and may represent the next logical step up from single-celled life. The next stage is the appearance of small mineralized shells starting around 545 million years ago. These small shells are referred to as "small shelly fossils" and were first reported by a team of Soviet scientists headed by Alexi Rozanov of the Paleontological Institute in Moscow. Rozanov reports in 1966 that the oldest limestones of Cambrian age contain many small and unfamiliar skeletons, few larger than 1 cm (1/2 inch) long. These fossils are referred to as "small shelly fossils". At the time these are the earliest known fossils of hard skeletons. Their discovery rewrites the story of the earliest Cambrian and sheds light on the Cambrian radiation. Most of the small shelly fossils are made of calcium phosphate, the same mineral that makes up the bones of vertebrates, but today, most marine invertebrate shells are made of calcium carbonate (the minerals calcite and aragonite). To some scientists this suggests that the later appearance of large calcified trilobites and other fossils, represents a time when atmospheric oxygen is abundant enough to allow calcite skeletons to be secreted. There is evidence that seawater chemistry favored aragonite precipitation during the late Precambrian and favored calcite precipitation during the Tommotian, and that carbonate skeletal mineralogy is determined by the chemistry of seawater at the time carbonate skeletons first evolve in a clade. Prokaryotic cyanobacteria also develop the ability to secrete carbonate skeletons around the same time. Eventually, the expansion of infaunal life destroys the widespread and vast cyanobacterial mats in shallow regions of the sea. (It's interesting to wonder if the predators ate the cyanobacteria that made the mats. In addition, if the extinction of the soft-bodied Ediacarin organisms was due in some part to the invention of a hard shell and organisms with improved predatory anatomies. Soft bodied jelly fish still thrive, so clearly, species can survive predation without having hard shell armor. In the case of jellyfish, probably cnidae make them uneatable.)	(Ara Formation) Oman|Lijiagou, Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province
559,000,000 YBN	103) First gastrotrichs evolve.
550,000,000 YBN	157) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the chordate line separating from echinoderm line here at 550 mybn (first chordates).
550,000,000 YBN	328) Ecdysozoa Superphylum "Ashelminthes" evolves. This includes the 5 Phyla: Ki norhyncha (kinorhynchs), Loricifera (loriciferans), Nematoda (round worms), Nematomorpha (horsehair worms), Priapulida (priapulids).
550,000,000 YBN	329) Platyzoa Rotifers.
547,000,000 YBN	333) The Lophotrochozoa Trochozoa Phyla Phoronida (phoronids) evolves.
547,000,000 YBN	334) The Lophotrochozoa Trochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda (brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}) evolves. Brachiopods are marine invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal and ventral shells enclosing a pair of tentacled, armlike structures that are used to sweep minute food particles into the mouth. Also called lampshell.
547,000,000 YBN	335) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Entoprocta (entoprocts) evolves.
544,000,000 YBN	310) These fossil are sponge spicule clusters and date to around 544 million years old. The earliest complete sponge fossils do not occur until the early Cambrian	southwestern Mongolia
543,000,000 YBN	53) End of the Precambrian and start of the Paleozoic Supereon. End of the Proterozoic and start of the Cambrian Eon.
543,000,000 YBN	101) Segmentation evolves (body parts are repeated serially, for example vertebrae). Some think that segmentation evolved independently in arthropods, annelid worms, vertebrates. The universality of Hox genes, evolved over 350 million years earlier, implies that segmentation may have occurred earlier and that all segmented species may share a common segmented ancestor. (Note that both animals and plants display segmentation - developing a series of repetitive segments.) (Determine time and supporting evidence, give more details about segmentation.)
543,000,000 YBN	120) Start Cambrian period (543-490 mybn).
543,000,000 YBN	336) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Bryozoa (Bryozoans or moss animals) evolves.
542,000,000 YBN	6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or "Cambrian explosion"), the rapid diversification of multicellular animals between 542 and 530 million years ago that results in the appearance of many of the major phyla (between 20 and 35) of animals. An increase of animals with shells. It was once thought that the Cambrian rocks contained the first and oldest fossil animals, but these are now to be found in the earlier Ediacaran (or Vendian) strata. Ediacaran animals are soft-bodied and so are infrequently preserved. When animals begin to develop hard parts, their probability of preservation greatly improves. Two fossil locations preserve this period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in British Columbia Canada, and the Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of China. The Burgess Shale fossils were discovered in 1909 by Charles D. Wolcott (CE 1850-1927), and are shiny black impressions on the shale bedding planes. Many are the remains of animals that lacked hard parts. Altogether there are four major groups of arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans, and the groups that include scorpions and insects), in addition to sponges, onycophorans, crinoids, mollusks, three phyla of worms, corals, chordates, and many species that cannot be placed in any known phylum. The Chengjiang Fauna resemble that of the Burgess Shale, but the Chengjiang fossils are older and better preserved. The fossils include many soft-bodied animals that are not usually not preserved. For example jellyfish show the detailed structure of tentacles, radial canals, and muscles, and on soft-bodies worms, eyes, segmentation, digestive organs, and patterns on the outer skin can be recognized. The Chengjiang fossils include the earliest fossil of a fish. One theory is that the Cambrian metazoan radiation is the result of a major increase in atmospheric oxygen after the retreat of the Varangian glaciers. Another theory is that the Cambrian radiation is triggered by predation, since the oldest traces of feeding within the mud occur around this time in addition to the various ways to protect the body by secretion of a mineral skeleton or building tubes by collected mineral grains that are developed by animals around this time.
541,000,000 YBN	132) Archaeocyatha {oRKEOSIatu} (early sponges).
540,000,000 YBN	104) The Platyzoa Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) evolves.
540,000,000 YBN	133) Earliest trilobite fossil. Trilobites are numerous extinct marine arthropods of the Paleozoic Era. Trilobites have a segmented body divided by grooves into three vertical lobes and are found as fossils throughout the world. One fossil arthropod, known as aglaspids, may be related to both trilobites and horseshoe crabs. Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs, but instead are members of the group known as the Chelicerata- a group that includes spiders and scorpions. True crabs are a family within the Crustacea, a different group entirely. So horseshoe crabs may be descended from trilobites. There is a transition, after the soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of the Ediacaran are the earliest small cylindrical shells of Cloudina and Sinotubulites, later in the Proterozoic, to the clam-like shells of the brachiopods in the Tommotian (Early Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and chitin shells of the trilobites in the Atdabianian. (add dates) The segmented shell of the trilobite, which provides more movement then the clam shell may have been a selective advantage. (verify)
540,000,000 YBN	6287) The Platyzoa Phylum Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs) evolves.
539,000,000 YBN	461) The first circulatory system (blood cells actively moved by muscle contraction) evolves in bilaterians. Circulatory systems can be divided into two kinds, "open" and "closed", both which contain a circulatory fluid or blood. In an open circulatory system, the blood and body cavity (hemocoelic) fluid are one and the same; the blood, often called hemolymph, empties from vessels into the body cavity (hemocoel) and directly bathes organs. In a closed circulatory system blood is kept separate from the coelomic fluid. Circulatory systems, open or closed, generally have structural mechanisms for pumping the blood and maintaining adequate blood pressures. Beyond the influence of general body movements, most of these structures fall into the categoriesl contractile vessels (as in annelids); osiate hearts (as in arthropods); and chambered hearts (as in molluscs and vertebrates). The method of initiating contraction of these different pumps (the pacemaker mechanism) may be intrinsic (originating within the muscles of the structure itself) or extrinsic (originating from motor nerves from outside the structure). (Contractile muscles that pump blood, including a heart, apparently evolve independently in both protostomes and deuterostomes. -verify)
539,000,000 YBN	506) The first heart evolves in bilaterians. Nemerteans, cylindrical worms evolved from an earlier ancestor, have a network of blood channels in the mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue between organs) but have no heart or pumping vessel. Some surviving coelomates have a series of channels or blood spaces outside the coelom tissue, that form a circulatory system, often with muscle cell contractible walls connected to the larger vessels that act as pumps to move the blood cells through the channels. (verify muscle cells) This organism, a mollusc, has a heart. (state organism with earliest known heart- gastropods?)
537,000,000 YBN	341) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu} (ribbon worms) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms
537,000,000 YBN	344) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Sipuncula (peanut worms) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms
533,000,000 YBN	342) Mollusks evolve. Mollusks are protostomes, members of the Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} in the subgroup Trochozoa. The Phylum Mollusca includes snails, clams, mussels, and the cephalopods: squids and octopuses. Among the most primitive mollusks are the Aplacophora which do not have shells but their epidermis secretes aragonite (calcareous) spicules and their body has a repetition of structures along their front-back (antero-posterior) axis. Mollusks are thought, by some, to be descended from a segemented worm (annelid) because of this segmented repetition of structure which is lost in most of the other later evolved mollusks. But others think mollusks descend from a nonsegmented ancestor. Among the earliest fossil mollusks known from the Cambrian are simple cap-shaped shells, similar to an extant mollusk named "Neopilina". Neopilina is clearly a mollusk with a single cap-shaped shell secreted by the mantle, as well as a mouth, digestive tract, anus, and gills. But unlike all other known mollusks alive today, Neopilina still retains the segmentation of its worm-like ancestors. Around the body are segemented gills, kidneys, hearts, gonads, and paired retractor muscles to pull down the shell. Beyond the difference in segmentation, in terms of skeleton, some annelids have chaetae which are tiny, spinelike structures made from (aragonite?) and are derived from single epidermal cells, while mollusks are covered by a thick sheet of skin called a mantle which secretes a hard calcareous (KaL-KAREuS} (calcium) skeleton (aragonite or calcite), either as tiny sclerites or as plates. A sclerite {SKli-rIT} is a chitinous or calcareous plate, spicule, or similar part of an invertebrate, especially one of the hard outer plates forming part of the exoskeleton of an arthropod. In addition annelids have a well developed coelon and a closed circulatory system while mollusks have a reduced coelon and an open circulatory system. (Isn't segmentation in all bilaterians?) An early Cambrian fossil mollusk named Maikhanella, which has a shell made from sclerites that are only loosely fused together, implies that after millions of years of evolution the spines become more fused into a single, rigid shell familiar in mollusks of the present time. Mollusca is a major phylum of the animal kingdom containing an extreme diversity of external body forms (oysters, clams, chitons, snails, slugs, squid, and octopuses among others), all based on a remarkably uniform basic plan of structure and function. The phylum name is derived from mollis, meaning soft, referring to the soft body within a hard calcareous shell. Soft-bodied mollusks make extensive use of ciliary and mucous mechanisms in feeding, locomotion, and reproduction. The Mollusca constitute a successful phylum; there are probably over 110,000 living species of mollusks, a number second only to that of the phylum Arthropoda, and more than double the number of vertebrate species. More than 99% of living molluscan species belong to two classes: Gastropoda (snails) and Bivalvia. Ecologically, these two classes can make up a dominant fraction of the animal biomass in many natural communities, both marine and fresh-water. The haemocoel forms the major body cavity of molluscs, usually in the form of several large, connected sinuses. Haemocyanin is the chief oxygen-carrying blood pigment, although a number of species have haemoglobin. A heart of variable complexity is usually present. A coelomic space is represented by the pericardium, kidneys and gonads.
530,000,000 YBN	338) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda evolve (insects, crustaceans). (Describe respiratory, circulatory, nervous, muscular, digestive, first metazoan to fly, first metazoan to live on land and when.) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods (Describe anatomy, various systems {sense organs, diet}. Describe what the thought and eye images might look like, and what the thought-sounds might sound like on these species.)
530,000,000 YBN	339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora (onychophorans) evolves. Onychophorans, know as "velvet worms", are the living transistional form between worms and arthropods. Although they have segmented worm-like bodies, they also have jointed appenages, antennae, and shed their cuticle like arthropods do.
530,000,000 YBN	340) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada (tardigrades) evolves.
530,000,000 YBN	343) The Lophotrochozoa (Trochozoa) Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) evolve.
530,000,000 YBN	350) Deuterstome Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata evolves. This Subphylum contains most fish, and all amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. Vertebrata is the major subphylum of the phylum Chordata and includes all animals with backbones, from fishes to humans. The characteristic features of the Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or backbone, and a cranium, which protects the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and major sense organs. Vertebrates evolved from a lower chordate similar to the present-day Cephalochordata (lancelets). Vertebrates originate in fresh water and develop a kidney as their organ of water balance. The main line of evolution in the vertebrates which leads to the tetrapods remains in fresh waters, however, several evolutionary vertebrate lines invade the oceans. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates CLASS Agnatha INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates
530,000,000 YBN	351) In the Subphylum Vertebrata jawless fish (agnatha) evolve.
530,000,000 YBN	386) Earliest vertebrate and fish fossil. Haikouichthys ercaicunensis: About 25 mm in length.	(Chengjiang) Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
525,000,000 YBN	6329) Earliest hemichordate fossil: Pterobranch "graptolite".	(Chengjiang Konservat-Lagerstätte) Yunnan Province, China
520,000,000 YBN	148) Hexactinellid sponge from the Hetang Formation, Southern China.
SCIENCE
520,000,000 YBN	6296) Earliest worm fossil. The fossil is a member of the phylum Chaetognatha (also called arrow worm), with only about 100 living species, is found in oceans throughout the world and plays an important role in the food web as primary predators	(Maotianshan Shale ) near Haikou, Kunming, China
520,000,000 YBN	6321) Earliest Chaetognath (arrow worm) fossil.	Lower (Cambrian Maotianshan Shale) near Haikou, Kunming, South China
507,000,000 YBN	140)
507,000,000 YBN	142) Hallucigenia fossil, from Burgess shale.
507,000,000 YBN	145)
507,000,000 YBN	146)
507,000,000 YBN	147)
505,000,000 YBN	74)
505,000,000 YBN	6291) Early Chordata fossil "Pikaia".	(Burgess Shale) Mount Wapta, British Columbia
500,000,000 YBN	230) Genetic comparison shows the Ascomycota Fungi "Pyrenomycetes" (head scab fungus, orange bread mold, rice blast fungus) and "Plectomycetes" (aspergillus, penicilin fungus, coccidiodomycosis fungus) evolving now.
490,000,000 YBN	121) Start Ordovician (490-443 mybn), end Cambrian period (543-490 mybn).
488,000,000 YBN	6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN} radiation. During the Ordovician (488-444 million years ago), the number of genera will quadruple.
475,000,000 YBN	233)
475,000,000 YBN	244) The Division Bryophyta contains green, seedless land plants that contain at least 18,000 species and divided into three classes: mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Bryophytes are distinguished from vascular plants and seed plants by the production of only one spore-containing organ in their spore-producing stage. Most bryophytes are 2-5 cm (0.8-2 in.) tall. Bryophytes are found throughout the surface of earth, from polar regions to the tropics, they are most abundant in humid environments, though none is marine. Bryophytes are extremely tolerant of dry and freezing conditions. (Many people view these plants and the beginning of the Plant kingdom and algae as being in the Protista kingdom.) Liverworts 9,000 Hornworts 100 species Mosses 15,000
475,000,000 YBN	352) Subphylum Vertebrata jawless fish lampreys and hagfish lines separate.
475,000,000 YBN	398) Plants live on land. Earliest fossil spore belonging to land plants. These spores look like the spores of living liverworts and Cooksonia. Plants conquer land before animals do, and like animals may move to land not by sea but by freshwater.	Caradoc, Libya
470,000,000 YBN	234)
460,000,000 YBN	84) Earliest fungi fossil. Fossilized fungal hyphae and spores strongly resemble modern arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomales, Zygomycetes).	Wisconsin, USA
460,000,000 YBN	235) 15,000 species.
460,000,000 YBN	353) Jawed vertebrates evolve, Infraphylum Gnathostomata {notoSTomoTo}. This large group includes all jawed fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. First vertebrate teeth. The jaw evolves from parts of the gill skeleton. The earliest jawed vertebrates, have no bone, there skeleton is made of cartilage. Humans have cartilage too, for example, in the lining of jointsm and the human skeleton starts as flexible cartilage in the embyro. Most of the human skeleton becomes ossified when mineral crystals, mostly calcium phosphate, become integrated into the skeleton. Except for teeth, the shark skeleton never undergoes this mineral transformation. Sharks lack the swim bladder of the later bony fish, and many sharks have to swim continuously to maintain their desired level in the water. Sharks and rays almost all live in the sea. Unlike the bony fish, no sharks ever climb onto land. Sharks have been the top of the food chains of the sea for hundreds of millions of years. The largest shark known is the whale shark, Rhincodon typus, which can be up to 12 meters long and weigh 12 tons. (Describe earliest jaw and tooth fossil.) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS †Placodermi McCoy, 1848 CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes CLASS †Acanthodii CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods	Oceans
450,000,000 YBN	158) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the gnathostome (vertebrates with a jaw bone) line separating from lamprey line here at 450 mybn (first gnathostome).
443,000,000 YBN	122) Start Silurian period (443-417), end Ordovician period (490-443 mybn).
440,000,000 YBN	360) Ray-finned fishes (Jawed, Class Osteichthyes, Subclass Actinopterygii) evolve. This is the fist bony fish (Osteichthyes) which includes the ray-finned, lobefin, and lung fishes. Bony-fish have a skeleton at least partly composed of true bone. Other features include, in most species, a swim bladder (an air-filled sac to give buoyancy), gill covers over the gill chamber, bony platelike scales, a skull with sutures, and external fertilization of eggs. Most of the ray-finned fish are known as teleosts (TelEoSTS). They exist in both salt and freshwater. The name ray is because their fins have a skeleton similar to a handheld fan.	Ocean and fresh water
440,000,000 YBN	6172) The first lung evolves from the fish swim bladder. Some surviving teleosts, such as bowfins, gars, and bichirs still use their swim bladder for breathing. Fish that breathe air through their gill chamber evolved breathing through a completely different route than those fish that breathe with a lung. Bichirs (BiCR) are among the most primitive of the ray-finned fishes. Instead of the swim bladder of most ray-finned fishes, the bichir has a pair of lungs, which enables it to survive out of water for several hours.	Ocean (presumably)
439,000,000 YBN	90) End-Ordovician mass extinction. 60% of all genera are observed extinct.
428,000,000 YBN	401) Oldest fossil of vascular land plants, Cooksonia pertoni. They have been found in an area stretching from Siberia to the Eastern USA, and in Brazil. They are found mostly in the area of Euramerica, and most of the type specimens are from Britain. Cooksonia were very small plants, only a few centimetres tall, and had a simple structure: They didn't have leaves, flowers or seeds. They had a simple stalk, that branched a few times. Each branch ended in a sporangium, a rounded structure that contained the spores. No specimen has been found attached to roots. Either it connected to the ground with very fine root hairs, the fossils are of fragments, or something entirely unanticipated. Some specimens have a dark stripe in the centre of their stalks which is interpreted as being the remains of water carrying tissue. Not all specimens have this stripe, either some Cooksonia lacked vasular tissue, or it was destroyed in the fossilization process.
428,000,000 YBN	402) The first animals live on land, arthropods: millipedes.
428,000,000 YBN	6312) Oldest fossil land animal, the millipede Pneumodesmus.
425,000,000 YBN	377) Lobefin (Jawed) evolve. Lobefin fish have a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin. The Coelacanths are the earliest known lobefin fish. There are 2 living species of coelacanths known.
417,000,000 YBN	123) Start Devonian period (417-354 mybn), end Silurian period (443-417 mybn).
417,000,000 YBN	378) Lungfishes (lobefin) evolve. There are only six species of lungfish alive today. The Australian lungfish has a single lung, the others have two. The African and South American species bury themselves in mud during the dry season, breathing air through a little breathing hole in the mud.
412,000,000 YBN	403) Oldest fossil lung fish. (cite paper)
409,000,000 YBN	404) Oldest fossil shark. (cite paper)
400,000,000 YBN	85)
400,000,000 YBN	159) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the tetrapod (4 leg) line separating from the fish line here at 400 mybn (first tetrapod).
400,000,000 YBN	236) Genetic comparison shows the oldest line of living vascular plants (Phylum: Tracheophytes) evolving now. Vascular plants are any plant that has a specialized conducting system consisting mostly of phloem (food-conducting tissue) and xylem (water-conducting tissue), collectively called vascular tissue. The phloem transports sugar and the xylem transports water and salts. Ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants are all vascular plants. In contrast to the nonvascular bryophytes, where the gametophyte is the dominant phase, the dominant phase among vascular plants is the sporophyte. Because they have vascular tissues, these plants have true stems, leaves, and roots, modifications of which enable species of vascular plants to survive in a variety of habitats under diverse, even extreme, environmental conditions. This ability to flourish in so many different habitats is the primary reason that vascular plants have become dominant among terrestrial plants. There are 1,200 species. Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Plantae - plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae - green plants Phylum Tracheophyta Sinnott, 1935 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998
400,000,000 YBN	399) Earliest fossil of an insect. This fossil also could have been winged.
385,000,000 YBN	405) The first forests. Oldest fossil large trees.	Gilboa, New York, USA
380,000,000 YBN	406) Oldest fossil spider. (cite paper)
380,000,000 YBN	6330) Fish "Tiktaalik", important transition between fish and amphibian (tetrapod).	(Fram Formation) Nunavut Territory, Canada
375,000,000 YBN	380) First tetrapods (4 feet). the amphibians (Superclass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia) evolve (ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads, salamanders) in fresh water. First limbs (arms and legs) and fingers. Almost no amphibians live in sea water. The earliest fossil amphibian is Elginerpeton, found in Scotland, dates back 368 million years.The earliest well known amphibians come from around 360 million years ago, and are Acanthostega and Ichthyostega. Acanthostega represents the most primitive tetrapod that has hands and feet for which there is a full skeleton. Acanthostega has eight toes per limb, no fin rays, a large load-bearing pelvis and is thought to have retained gills into adulthood. Ichthyostega is a large carnivore, ranging in size from 0.5 - 1.2 m. The earliest known Ichthyostega comes from 363 million year old deposits in Greenland (then on the equator). Ichthyostega is largely aquatic but has massive broad ribs that may be used for support of internal organs while on land. (State earliest limb and finger fossils- make separate records for each.)	Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)
368,000,000 YBN	407) Oldest amphibian (and tetrapod) fossil. Tetrapods are four-limbed, vertebrate animals (all vertebrates except fish).	Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland
367,000,000 YBN	408) Late Devonian mass extinction caused by ice age. 57% of all genera are observed extinct.
365,000,000 YBN	160) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the amniote () line separating from the amphibian line here at 365 mybn (first amniote).
363,000,000 YBN	379) The first vertebrates live on land (amphibians).	Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)
360,000,000 YBN	237) Genetic comparison shows Ferns (Plant division Pteridophyta) evolving now. Ferns are are flowerless, seedless vascular plants having roots, stems, and fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern or leaf of a palm) and reproducing by spores.
359,000,000 YBN	243) The earliest fossil seed (Genomosperma) is from a seed fern (Pteridosperm). Discoveries of Lower Carboniferous fossils in Scotland indicate that the integument (cover) and the cupule wall (cup-shaped wall) of the pteridosperms (seed ferns) evolved from an enclosing ring of vegetative lobes that fused together. Pteridosperms are a group of extinct seed plants characterized by fernlike leaves that produce naked seeds.	Scotland
354,000,000 YBN	124) Start Carboniferous period (354-290 mybn), end Devonian period (417-354 mybn).
350,000,000 YBN	361) Ray-finned fishes, (Chondrostei), Sturgeons and Paddlefish.
350,000,000 YBN	362) Ray finned fishes: Bichirs evolve.
340,000,000 YBN	384) The hard-shell egg evolves. This group of tetropods, the Amniota, will branch into Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} (which includes reptiles and birds) and Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du}(which includes mammals). All living amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals) lay hard-shelled eggs, except in most mammals and some snakes and lizards, where egg laying has been replaced by live birth. This egg is waterproof.	Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland
338,000,000 YBN	410) Amniotes (reptiles, birds, and animals) are distinguished from non-amniote tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence of complex embryonic membranes. One of these, the amnion, gives its name to the group. The next earliest amniote fossil is Hylonomus, a small lizard-like reptile that was trapped in the trunk of a swamp tree in what is now Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada (~300 MYBN).	Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland
335,000,000 YBN	6331)	(earliest possible Synapsid fossil: Cumberland group, Joggins formation.) Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada
330,000,000 YBN	409) Oldest fossil conifer.
330,000,000 YBN	6307) Synapsid Pelycosauria evolve (Edaphosaurus, Dimetrodon). There are two main groups of synapsids: pelycosaurs (sail-backed reptiles) and therapsids (mammal-like reptiles). Pelycosaurs arise in the mid-Carboniferous from cotylosaurs and soon enjoy an extensive radiation through the early Permian, coming to sonstitute about hald of the known amniote genera of the time. Some like Edaphosaurus are herbivorous, however, most are carnivores that prey on fish and acquatic amphibians. Pelycosaurs differ in size but not in design. The most notable feature in some species is a broad "sail" along the back consisting of an extensive layer of skin supported internally by a row of fixed neural spines projecting from successive vertebrae. If the sail is brightly colored, it might have been used in courtship or in bluff displays with rivals, similar to ornamentations in birds. The sail may be a sun light collector: when turned broadside to the sun, blood moving through the sail is heated, then carried to the rest of the body. Somewhat suddenly pelycosaurs decline in numbers and are extinct by the end of the Permian. Therapsides evolve from them, and largely replace the Pelycosauria for a time as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
325,000,000 YBN	381) The amphibians: Caecilians evolve.
324,000,000 YBN	411) The first flying animal, an arthropod insect. This is the earliest pterygote (winged insect). This species is thought to be of orthopteroid lineage (cockroaches, stick insects, praying mantids, grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets). The group is characterized by gradual metamorphosis, chewing mouthparts, and two pairs of wings, the anterior pair of which is usually thickened and leathery and covers the fanwise folded second pair. Wings are reduced or absent in many species. Arthropods evolve flight 90 million years before the first flight among vertebrates.	Upper Silesian Basin, Czech Republic
320,000,000 YBN	238) Gymnosperms (earliest surviving seed plants, Spermatophyta) evolve. Genetic comparison shows the oldest living Gymnosperms (Greek for "Naked Seed"), Cycads, from the Plant Kingdom evolving now.
320,000,000 YBN	245) Genetic comparison shows earliest surviving flowering plant (Angiosperm) "Amborella" evolving now. This begins the "broad-leaf" plants. Angiosperms split from Gymnosperms around this time (320 mya), but do not radiate until around 150 mya. The oldest angiosperm fossil is around 145 million years old and from northeastern China. There is only 1 species of Amborella still living. Angiosperms (flowering plants) are the first plant to produce fruits. A fruit is the ripened ovary, together with seeds, of a flowering plant. In many species, the fruit incorporates the ripened ovary and surrounding tissues. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds. Class is "Palaeodicots"?
317,000,000 YBN	385) Reptiles evolve (the earliest branch of the Sauropsida, Reptila or Eureptila). The class Sauropsida contains approximately 8,700 species and is a group of air-breathing vertebrates that have internal fertilization, a scaly body, and are cold-blooded. Most species have short legs (or none), long tails, and lay eggs. Living reptiles include the scaly reptiles (snakes and lizards: Squamata), the crocodiles (Crocodylia), the turtles (Testudines), and the unique tuatara (Sphenodontida). Being cold-blooded, reptiles are not found in very cold regions; in regions with cold winters, reptiles usually hibernate. Reptiles range in size from geckos that measure about 3 cm (1 in.) long to the python, which grows to 9m (30 ft); the largest turtle, the marine leatherback, weighs about 1,500 lb (680 kg). Extinct reptiles include the dinosaurs, the pterosaurs, and the dolphin-like ichthyosaurs. (Describe anatomy, various systems {sense organs, diet}. Describe what the thought and eye images might look like, and what the thought-sounds might sound like on these species.)	(Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia, Canada
315,000,000 YBN	453) Allegheny mountains form as a result of the collision of Europe and eastern North America.
305,000,000 YBN	242) Earliest frogs fossil, Prosalire.
305,000,000 YBN	382) The amphibians: Frogs and Toads evolve.
305,000,000 YBN	383) Amphibians: Salamanders evolve.
300,000,000 YBN	162) Amino acid sequence comparison shows that the common ancestor of all mammals, birds, and reptiles dates to here at 300 mybn.
300,000,000 YBN	387) Reptiles: Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins evolve.
290,000,000 YBN	125) Start Permian period (290-248 mybn), end Carboniferous period (354-290 mybn).
290,000,000 YBN	239) Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo 1 species
287,000,000 YBN	6308) Synapsid Therapsids evolve (Cynodonts). Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs and largely replace them for a time as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. Therapsids appear in the late Permian and prosper during the early Triassic. The Therapsids are quadruperal and their feet have five digits, but their legs are more directly positioned under the weight of their body. This reflects a more efficient and active mode of locomotion. Teeth are differentiated into distinct types. Some herbivorous therapsids become specialized for rooting or grubbing, some for digging, some for browsing. The overall selection for more efficient terrestrial locomotion and feeding specializations results in greateer diversity within therapsids. There is some evidence that therapsids become endothermic in parallel with their archosaur (avian) contemporaries. One especially successful group of therapsids are the cynodonts. Some are herbivores but more are carnivores. They arise in the late Permian and become dominant land carnivores in the early part of the Triassic, until largely replaced by the terrestrial sauropsids of the late Triassic. Cynodonts have teeth specialized for slicing together with muscular cheeck that keep the food between tooth rows that chew the food. The Cynodont limbs are direectly under the body, contributing to the ease and efficiency of ative terrestrial locomotion. In addition, extensive turbinals are likely present in the nose. These are thin, scrolled, and folded plates of bone that warm and humidify the incoming air (as well as hold the olfactory epithelium). These characteristics suggest that cynodonts had an endothermic metabolism. During their evolution the cynodonts decline in body size from the size of a large dog to slightly larger than a weasel. By the Triassic, only one group of cynodonts, the mammals, will remain and eventually prosper after the great dinosaur extinctions are the end of the Cretaceous.
274,000,000 YBN	307) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Brown Algae (Phaeophyta, Class "Phaeophyceae" (FEo-FIS-E-I or FEo-FIS-E-E}) evolving now. Brown Algae is the most genetically primitive multicellular eukaryote still living on earth. Modern brown algae have both filamentous multicellularity and cell differentiation. Most Brown algae are haplodiplontic. (Are brown algae cells totipotent (one can grow a complete organism)?) (It seems possible that the multicellular metazoans may have shared a common multicellular differentiated ancestor with the phaeophyceae. The alternative is that multicellularity and differentiation evolved separately in brown algae and metazoans like sponges and cnidarians. Some bacteria are multicellular, for example cyanobacteria. So possibly multicellularity evolved separately 3 times, or some multicellular DNA was preserved and re-emerged.)
270,000,000 YBN	240) Pinophyta - Conifers "Pinaceae" 220 "Other conifers" 400 species Kingdom: Plantae Division: Pinophyta Class: Pinopsida Order: Pinales Families: Pinaceae - Pine family Araucariaceae - Araucaria family Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family ciadopitya ceae - Umbrella-pine family Cupressaceae - Cypress family (includes Sequoia, Redwoods, Cypress, Alerce {Second oldest}) Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family Taxaceae - Yew family
266,000,000 YBN	308) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Eukaryote Heterokont Subphylum "Diatomeae" (Diatoms) evolving now.
260,000,000 YBN	364) Ray-finned fishes: Gars.
255,000,000 YBN	389) Reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ} evolve.	(Islands of) New Zealand
251,400,000 YBN	102) End-Permian mass extinction. 82% of all genera are observed extinct. The are 5 known major mass extinctions.
251,000,000 YBN	452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe) forms.
251,000,000 YBN	6306) Oldest fossil egg.	Texas (verify)
250,000,000 YBN	241) Gnetophyta - Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80 species.
250,000,000 YBN	368) Ray-finned fishes: Bowfin fishes. Bowfins (Amiiformes) are a primitive bony freshwater fish of central and eastern North America, with a long spineless dorsal fin.
248,000,000 YBN	54) End of Paleozoic and start of Mesozoic Supereon, and the end of the Permian (290-248 mybn) and start of the Triassic period (248-206 mybn).
245,000,000 YBN	392) Reptiles: Crocodiles, Allegators, Caimans evolve.
239,000,000 YBN	6298) Dinosaurs divide into two major lines: Ornithischians (Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and Saurischians (Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). The Ornithischians will evolve into both bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters (herbavores), and the Saurischians will evolve into bipedal meat-eaters (carnivores) and quadrupedal plant-eaters.
230,000,000 YBN	232) Endothermic (warm blooded) (possibly a therocephalian) reptile evolves. The origin of endothermy is still unresolved. If endothermia only evolves once, this is a common ancestor of birds and mammals. The earliest fossil that has hair is a Pterosaur fossil that is around 215 million years old, and some argue that Pterosaurs are endothermic (warm-blooded). The common ancestor of monotremes is 180 MYBN, and all monotremes are endothermic. (Show average body temperature for each major phylum.)
228,000,000 YBN	412) Reptiles: dinosaurs evolve.	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
228,000,000 YBN	6299) Oldest dinosaur fossil (Eoraptor).	(Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina
225,000,000 YBN	126) Mammals evolve. First nipple, mammary gland, and breast. The earliest evidence for mammals is the fossil Adelobasileus, a 15mm skull found in Texas. Adelobasileus belongs to a monophyletic group that includes Morganucodon, multituberculates, monotremes, and therians. (Describe oldest hair fossil.) (Describe issue of endothermic anatomy evolving in common ancestor of birds and mammals, or independently evolved twice?)	(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA
220,000,000 YBN	400) This is a fingernail-sized skull found in Texas.	(Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA
220,000,000 YBN	428) The first flying vertebrate (Pterosaur). Oldest Pterosaur fossils (Preondactylus and Eudimorphodon). Pterosaurs have hair, and some argue have endothermy (are warm-blooded) and actively fly (contracting their wing muscles to flap, as opposed to only glide).
210,000,000 YBN	369) Ancestor of all (Ray-Finned) teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolves. Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a large group of fishes with bony skeletons, including most common fishes, different from cartilaginous fishes such as sharks and rays.
210,000,000 YBN	390) Reptiles: Iguanas, chameleons, and spiny lizards evolve.
210,000,000 YBN	391) Reptiles: snakes, skinks, and geckos evolve.
210,000,000 YBN	413) Oldest turtle fossil, Proganochelys.
210,000,000 YBN	6313) Earliest extant Teleosts: Bonytongues. Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a large group of fishes with bony skeletons, including most common fishes, different from cartilaginous fishes such as sharks and rays.
209,500,000 YBN	489) Triconodonta (extinct mammals) evolve.
206,000,000 YBN	127) Start Jurassic period (206-144 mybn), end Triassic period (248-206 mybn).
201,400,000 YBN	228) End-Triassic mass extinction. 53% of all genera are observed extinct. Both thecodonts and synapsids go extinct. Large outpourings of lava from break-up of Pangea may have caused climate change.
200,000,000 YBN	370) Teleosts: eels and tarpons evolve.
200,000,000 YBN	6285) Earliest certain dinoflagellate fossil.
190,000,000 YBN	358) Jawed fishes: squalea {SKWAlEo} evolve (rays, skates, sawfishes).
190,000,000 YBN	359) Jawed fish: "Galea" (sharks) evolve (great white, hammerhead, nurse sharks). Sharks and rays are members of the Class "Chondrichthyes", cartilaginous fishes. Well-known species such as the great white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark, and the hammerhead are apex predators, at the top of the underwater food chain. (verify)
190,000,000 YBN	371) Teleosts: herrings and anchovies.
190,000,000 YBN	6289) Supercontinent Pangea splits into Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern part, Laurasia will form North America and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana will form South America and Africa.	Pangea
185,000,000 YBN	194) Oldest diatom (Heterokonts or Chromalveolates) fossils.
180,000,000 YBN	456) Earliest extant mammals, monotremes {moNeTrEMZ} evolve. Monotremes are an order of primitive egg-laying mammals restricted to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea and consisting of only the platypus and the echidna. Monotremes are the earliest surviving warm blooded and hair growing species. (verify- perhaps the earliest bird is)	Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
179,000,000 YBN	250) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm group "Magnoliids" evolving now. There are 9,000 living species. Magnoliids include magnolias, nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and white pepper, camphor, bay (laurel) leaves. The oldest living flower, Amborella is catagorized as a Magnoliid. Includes edible fruits: avocados (Persea americana), guanabana, sour sop, chrimoya, and sweet sop. Spices: black and white pepper (Piper nigrum), bay leaves (Laurus nigrus), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), and camphor (Cinnamomum caphora). In addition to the ornamental flowers magnolias. Class is "Palaeodicots"?
179,000,000 YBN	6288) Genetic comparison shows earliest extant flowering plant (Angiosperm) "Amborella" evolving now.
171,000,000 YBN	247) Genetic comparison shows the second oldest line of Angiosperms, the Water Lilies ("Nymphaeales") evolving now. 70 species.
170,000,000 YBN	372) Teleosts: carp, minnows, piranhas.
170,000,000 YBN	373) Teleosts: salmon, trout, pike.
165,000,000 YBN	248) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Austrobaileyales" evolving now. 100 species living. A. scandens contains fruit, growing from its vines. The fruit is apricot-coloured and contain tightly packed seeds in the shape of chestnuts. The fruit is shaped in a similar fashion to that of a pear or eggplant. Fruit from Austrobaileya has been known to grow to sizes of 7 cm in length by 5 cm.
165,000,000 YBN	457) Genetic comparison shows Marsupials evolving now. Marsupium means pouch in Latin. Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and crawl through their mother's fur into the pouch where they clamp their mouths to a nipple (teat). The other main group of mammals are called placentals because they feed their embryos with a placenta which allows the baby top be born much later. The pouch is like an external womb.	China
160,000,000 YBN	163) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the eutheria (placental mammals) line separating from the marsupial line here at 130 mybn (first placental mammals). The oldest known eutherian species is Juramaia sinensis, dated at 160 million years ago from the Jurassic in China.	(Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning Province, China
158,000,000 YBN	249) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Chloranthaceae" evolving now. 70 living species.
155,000,000 YBN	251) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Ceratophyllaceae" evolving now. 6 living species. The oldest relative of all the eudicots.
155,000,000 YBN	253) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm group Eudicots {YUDIKoTS} (includes most former dicotyledons) evolving now. Eudicots are the largest lineage of flowers. Eudicots are also called "tricolpates" which refers to the structure of the pollen. The two main groups are the "rosids" and "asterids".
154,000,000 YBN	252) Monocots are the second largest lineage of flowers after the Eudicots (formally Dicotyledons) with 70,000 living species (20,000 species of orchids, and 15,000 species of grasses). The two main orders of Monocots are "Base Monocots" and "Commelinids". All the grasses on earth come from this line of flowers (check). Base Monocots (Family Petrosaviaceae) Acorales Alismatales Asparagales (asparagus, onion, garlic, chives, agave, yucca, aloe, hyacinth, orchids, iris, saffron) Dioscoreales (yam) Liliales (lillies) Pandanales Commelinids (Family Dasypogonaceae) Arecales (palms,date palm, rattan, coconut) Commelinales Poales (grasses: maize {corn}, rice, barley, oat, millet, wheat, rye, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple, water chestnut, papyrus {many alcohols, breads}) Zingiberales (cardamom, tumeric, myoga, banana, ginger, arrowroot)
154,000,000 YBN	265) Angiosperm Monocot group "Base Monocots" evolves (asparagus, onion, garlic, agave, aloe, orchid, lily). Base Monocots include: ORDER Acorales ORDER Alismatales ORDER Asparagales (asparagus, onion, garlic, chives, agave, yucca, aloe, hyacinth, orchids, iris) ORDER Dioscoreales (yam) ORDER Liliales (lily) ORDER Pandanales * Family Petrosaviaceae
150,000,000 YBN	246) Large, long-necked (sauropod) dinosaurs like Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus, and Diplodocus live around this time.	western USA
150,000,000 YBN	330) Stegosaurus, an armored, plant-eating dinosaur lives around this time.	western USA
150,000,000 YBN	374) Teleosts: Lightfish and Dragonfish.
150,000,000 YBN	393) Birds evolve. The first feather. The oldest fossil bird is named Archaeoptyrx, is 150 million years old, and is from the Solnhofen Limestone of Germany. Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from China (~120 MYBN) indicate that feathers may have originally evolved on non-flying reptiles for insulation (or courting) and not flight. (Note that the fossil is not older than Archeoptyrx ~150MYBN but the species is.) Microraptor gui, a 120 million year old four-winged feathered dinosaur that could probably glide, may represent an intermediate stage towards the active, flapping-flight stage. This suggests that these feathered dinosaurs are arboreal (tree) animals, and that the ancestor of birds first learns to glide by taking advantage of gravity before flapping flight is acquired in birds. The earliest bird with a beak is Confuciusornis, which also dates to around 120 million years old. Birds have highly developed color vision. Both birds and reptiles have nucleated red blood cells but the mammal red blood cell has no nucleus. (There are many unsolved questions about birds. Did birds evolve flight from trees or from the ground? From what part of the body did feathers evolve? What colors were the first birds? Was Archaeopteryx warm blooded?) (All living birds are endothermic (warm-blooded), so determine if the first warm-blooded animal is bird instead of a mammal.) (Describe anatomy, various systems {sense organs, diet}. Describe what the thought and eye images might look like, and what the thought-sounds might sound like on these species.)
150,000,000 YBN	394) The Archaeopteryx fossil is from the Solnhofen Limestone of the Upper Jurassic of Germany. Archaeopteryx is a member of the extinct Subclass Archaeornithes.	Solnhofen, Germany
147,000,000 YBN	254) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Eudicots" evolving now. Basal Eudicots include: ORDER Ranunculales (buttercup, poppy, clematis) ORDER Sabiaceae (*is not in wiki listing, but is on s28 APG2) ORDER Proteales (macadamia, sycamore, lotus) ORDER Buxales ORDER Trochodendrales 120mybn cretaceous fossils
146,000,000 YBN	490) Multituberculata (extinct major branch of mammals) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammaliformes Order: Multituberculata Cope, 1884
145,000,000 YBN	415) Oldest flower fossil, Archaefructus, in China, a submerged wetland plant.	(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China
144,000,000 YBN	128) Start Cretaceous period (144-65 mybn), end Jurassic period (206-144 mybn).
136,000,000 YBN	460) Enantiornithes (early birds) evolve.
132,000,000 YBN	462) Hesperornithiformes (early birds) evolve.
130,000,000 YBN	375) Teleosts: Perch, seahorses, flying fish, pufferfish, barracuda.
130,000,000 YBN	376) Teleosts: cod, anglerfish.
128,000,000 YBN	282) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm Eudicot "Euasterids II" order "Aquifoliales" (includes holly) evolving now.
128,000,000 YBN	284) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm Eudicot "Euasterids II" order "Dipsacales" evolving now. Dipsacales includes Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn Salad.
125,000,000 YBN	395) Earliest fossil of a bird with a beak, Confuciusornis. Unlike Archaeopteryx, Confuciusornis had no teeth, and has the earliest beak.	(Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China
124,000,000 YBN	267) Angiosperm "Core Eudicots" evolve. Core Eudicots includes carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, pitcher plants {old world}, beet, quinoa, spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony, witch-hazel, mistletoe, grape. ORDER Gunnerales ORDER Berberidopsidales ORDER Aextoxicaceae ORDER Dilleniales ORDER Caryophyllales (carnation, beet, spinach, quinoa, cactus {prickly pear, peyote/mescaline}, caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, pitcher plants {old world}) ORDER Saxifragales (gooseberry, sweet gum, currants, peony, witch-hazel) ORDER Santalales (sandalwood, mistletoe) ORDER Vitales (grape {wine, juice, jelly, raisen, oil, dolma})
120,000,000 YBN	463) Neornithes {nEORnitEZ} evolve (modern birds: the most recent common ancestor of all living birds).
114,000,000 YBN	274) Angiosperm Eudicot "Basal Asterids" evolve. Earliest surviving Order "Cornales". The Order Cornales includes dogwoods, tupelos, dove tree
114,000,000 YBN	275) Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order "Ericales" evolves. The Ericales include kiwifruit (kiwi), Impatiens, ebony, persimmon, heather, crowberry, rhododendrons, azalias, cranberries, blueberries, lingonberry, bilberry, huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose, sapodilla, mamey sapote (sapota), chicle, balatá, canistel, pitcher plants {carniverous}, tea {Camellia sinensis}
112,000,000 YBN	481) Steropodon galmani, an extinct monotreme, the earliest platypus-like species, lives.	Lightning Ridge in north central New South Wales, Australia
110,000,000 YBN	416) Sauroposeidon, a long-neck brachiosaur (sauropod) lives.	Oklahoma, USA
109,000,000 YBN	256) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Rosids" evolving now. Includes Geranium, Pomegranate, myrtle, clove, guava, feijoa, allspice, eucalyptus. # Basal rosids * Crossosomatales * Geraniales * Myrtales
107,000,000 YBN	277) Angiosperm Eudicot "Euasterids I" evolve, with earliest surviving order "Garryales".
105,000,000 YBN	417) Argentinosaurus, a long-neck titanosaur (sauropod) fossil. Argentinosaurus, a long-neck (sauropod) titanosaur from South America, possibly the longest animal of all time, at an estimated 130 to 140 feet length.
105,000,000 YBN	491) Ancestor of all placental mammal Afrotheres evolves (elephants, manatees, aardvarks). Afrotheres originate in Africa and are the earliest extant placental mammals. (Describe anatomy, various systems {sense organs, diet}. Describe what the thought and eye images might look like, and what the thought-sounds might sound like on these species.) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria: (Describe how elephant lost most of its hair.)	Africa
101,000,000 YBN	268) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I" Order "Zygophyllales" evolves.
101,000,000 YBN	285) # Euasterids II ORDER Aquifoliales (hollies) ORDER Apiales (dill, chervil, angelica, celery, caraway, poison hemlock, coriander {cilantro}, cumin, carrot, sea holly, fennel, cicely, parsnip, parsley, anise, lovage, ginseng, ivy) ORDER Dipsacales (Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn Salad) ORDER Asterales (Burdock, tarragon, daisy, marigold, Safflower, chrysanthemum {mum}, chickory, endive, artichoke, sunflower, sunroot (Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce, chamomile, black-eyed susan, black salsify, dandelion, zinnia
100,000,000 YBN	164) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the mammal line separating from the primate line here at 100 mybn (first primates).
100,000,000 YBN	418) Carnotaurus fossil, a horned, meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from South America.	South America
100,000,000 YBN	464) Birds "Tinamiformes" evolve (Tinamous). The tinamous, an order of South and Central American birds which are superficially fowl-like but have fully developed wings and are weak fliers.
100,000,000 YBN	465) Birds "Ratites" evolve (ostrich, emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, kiwis). (Explain anatomy of feathers, and comparison with hair. Did these birds lose or adapt the earlier feather or branched before feathered ancestor?)
100,000,000 YBN	480)
95,000,000 YBN	283) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm Eudicot "Euasterids II" order "Apiales" {APEAlEZ} evolving now. Apiales includes dill, angelica, chervil, celery, caraway, cumin, sea holly, poison hemlock, coriander (cilantro), carrot, lovage, parsnip, anise, fennel, cicely, parsley, ivy, ginseng # Euasterids II ORDER Aquifoliales (hollies) ORDER Apiales (dill, chervil, angelica, celery, caraway, poison hemlock, coriander {cilantro}, cumin, carrot, sea holly, fennel, cicely, parsnip, parsley, anise, lovage, ginseng, ivy) ORDER Dipsacales ORDER Asterales
95,000,000 YBN	419) Spinosaurus fossil, perhaps the largest meat-eating dinosaur, estimated to have been 45 to 50 feet long. The only skeleton ever found was destroyed during World War 2.
95,000,000 YBN	498) Mammals "Xenarthrans" {ZeNoRtreNZ} evolve (Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass Edentata: Superorder Xenarthra:
94,000,000 YBN	258) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order "Celastrales" evolving now.
94,000,000 YBN	261) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ} evolving now. Fabales includes beans (green, lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung {sprouts}, fava {falafel}, cow (black-eyed), popping), pea, peanut, soy {tofu, miso, tempeh, milk}, lentil, chick pea (garbonzo) {falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa {sprouts}, cassia, jicama, Judas tree, tamarind, acacia, mesquite
91,000,000 YBN	259) Malpighiales {maLPiGEAlEZ} includes gambooge, mangosteen, coca {cocaine, drink}, rubber tree, cassava (manioc) {used like potato, tapioca}, castol oil, poinsettia, flax, acerola (barbados cherry), willow, poplar, aspen, violet (pansy).
91,000,000 YBN	260) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids I" Order "Oxalidales" evolving now. Oxalidales includes Cephalotus Follicularis (fly-catcher plant), wood sorrel family (leaves show "sleep movements"), oca (edible tuber)
90,000,000 YBN	270) Angiosperm "Eurosids II" evolve: earliest surviving Order "Brassicales" {BraSiKAlEZ}. Brassicales includes horseradish, rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black, indian, sarepta, asian}, rutabaga, kale, Chinese broccoli (kai-lan), cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage (white and red {coleslaw, sauerkraut}), kohlrabi, broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette, papaya mignonette, mallows, soapberry, citris, mahogany, cashew, frankincense, cacao (chocolate), cola {kola nuts, caffeine}
89,000,000 YBN	262) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Rosales" {ROZAlEZ} evolving now. Rosales includes hemp (cannibis, marijuana) {rope, oil, recreational drug}, hackberry, hop {beer}, breadfruit, cempedak, jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig, banyan, strawberry, rose, red raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry, cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry, thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry, quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, pair, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, almonds, jujube, elm
89,000,000 YBN	279) # Euasterids I ORDER Garryales ORDER Solanales (deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum {bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento}, cayenne pepper, datura, tomatos, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, water spinach) ORDER Gentianales {JeNsinAlEZ} (gentian, dogbane, carissa (Natal plum), oleander, logania, coffee) ORDER Lamiales ORDER Unplaced: Boraginaceae
87,000,000 YBN	266) Angiosperm Monocot group "Commelinids" {KomelIniDZ} evolve. Commelinids include: Arecales (palms,date palm, rattan, coconut) Commelinales Poales (grasses: maize {corn}, rice, barley, oat, millet, wheat, rye, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple, water chestnut, papyrus {many alcohols, breads}) Zingiberales (cardamom, turmeric, myoga, banana, ginger, arrowroot) (Family Dasypogonaceae) (new order?)
86,000,000 YBN	278) Angiosperm Eudicot "Euasterids I" order "Solanales" {SOlanAlEZ} evolves. So lanales includes deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum (bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento), cayenne pepper, datura, tomato, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, water spinach	Americas
85,000,000 YBN	263) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Cucurbitales" (KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolving now. Cucurbitales includes watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins, squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut, cushaw, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti), zucchini, begonia	Americas
85,000,000 YBN	264) Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Fagales" {FaGAlEZ} evolves. Fagales includes Birch, Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut}, Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {nut, cork}, walnut, pecan, hickory, bayberry (It is somewhat interesting that all broadleaf trees are flowers.)
85,000,000 YBN	466) Birds "Galliformes" {GaLliFORmEZ} evolve (Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant, Peacock, Quail). The Galliformes are an order of birds that includes important domestic and game birds, such as turkeys, pheasants, and quails.
85,000,000 YBN	467) Birds "Anseriformes" {aNSRiFORmEZ} evolve (waterfowl: ducks, geese, swans). The "Anseriformes" are an order of birds, including ducks, geese, swans, and screamers, characterized by a broad, flat bill and webbed feet. (Determine if includes pelecans and herons.)
85,000,000 YBN	499) Ancestor of all placental mammal "Laurasiatheres" evolves. This major line of mammals includes bats, camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos, whales, horses, rhinos, cats, dogs, bears, seals, walruses. Laurasiatheres originate in the old northern continent Laurasia. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires	Laurasia
84,000,000 YBN	454) Rocky mountains form.
82,000,000 YBN	271) Angiosperm Eudicot "Eurosids II" Order "Malvales" {moLVAlEZ} evolves. Malvales includes okra, marsh mallow, kola nut, cotton, hibiscus, balsa, cacao {chocolate}	Americas
82,000,000 YBN	272) Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order "Sapindales" {SaPiNDAlEZ} evolve (maple, citris, cashew, mango, pistachio). The Order Sapindales includes maple, buckeye, horse chestnut, longan, lychee, rambutan, guarana, bael, orange, lemon, grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo, kumquat, langsat, duku, mahogany, cashew, mango, pistachio, sumac, peppertree, poison-ivy, frankincense.	Americas
82,000,000 YBN	420) Hadrosaurs, duck-billed dinosaurs are common. Duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs) are common like Corythyosaurus, Edmontosaurus, Lambeosaurus, Maiasaurus, and Parasaurolophus. Maiasaurs are examples of dinosaurs from which fossil nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have been found.
82,000,000 YBN	500) Laurasiatheres "Insectivora" evolves (shrews, moles, hedgehogs). Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria
81,000,000 YBN	281) Genetic comparison shows the Eudicot Angiosperm "Euasterids I" (unplaced) family "Boraginaceae" (includes forget-me-not) evolving now.
80,000,000 YBN	421) Ceratopsian dinosaurs. Protoceratops, an early shield-headed (ceratopsian) dinosaur fossil. This is the first dinosaur discovered with fossil eggs. These eggs and nests were found in Mongolia in the 1920's.	Mongolia, China
80,000,000 YBN	422) Raptor (dromaeosaur) fossils. Raptors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous dinosaurs, which have large, hook claws on their feet. Velociraptor is one example. The most famous Velociraptor is a skeleton preserved in combat with a Protoceratops from Mongolia, China.
80,000,000 YBN	482) Marsupials "Didelphimorphia" evolve (American and true opossums).	Americas
80,000,000 YBN	501) Laurasiatheres mammals "Megachiroptera" {KIroPTRu} (Old World fruit bats) and "Microchiroptera" (Echolocating Bats) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Laurasiatheria Order: Chiroptera	Laurasia
78,000,000 YBN	502) Laurasiatheres "Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu} evolve (ancestor of all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu}: camels, pigs, ruminants, hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu}: Whales, Dolphins). Hippos are the closest living relative to whales. Cetartiodactyla is an unranked taxonomic group, equivalent to a superorder, containing the orders Artiodactyla and Cetacea. It is proposed on the basis of molecular evidence suggesting a close evolutionary relationship between the two orders. The artiodactyla are an order comprising the even-toed ungulates (hoofed mammals). There are two main radiations: the predominantly omnivorous Bunodontia, including suoids (such as pigs, peccaries, and hippos); and the more herbivorous Selenodontia, including camels and ruminants (such as deer, giraffe, cattle, sheep, and antelope). Artiodactyla contains about 213 living species, making it the fifth most speciose order of mammals. First known from the early Eocene, artiodactyls have proliferated during the last 55 million years to reach great diversity (especially among the family Bovidae). Their radiation is often contrasted with that of the odd-toed ungulates, or Perissodactyla (horses, rhinos, and tapirs). Artiodactyls are also important for human economy and agriculture, comprising most of the domestic animals, providing milk, wool, and most of the meat supply. Ruminants are any of various hoofed, even-toed, usually horned mammals of the suborder Ruminantia, such as cattle, sheep, goats, deer, and giraffes, characteristically having a stomach divided into four compartments and chewing a cud consisting of regurgitated, partially digested food. Cetacea is an order or marine mammals that includes the whales, dolphins, and porpoises, characterized by a nearly hairless body, anterior limbs modified into broad flippers, vestigial posterior limbs, and a flat notched tail. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria (Separate into suborders.)	Laurasia
77,000,000 YBN	483) Marsupials "Paucituberculata" evolve (Shrew opossums) evolve. The Marsupial Order Paucituberculata contains 6 surviving species confined to Andes mountains in South America. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Paucituberculata Ameghino, 1894 Family: Caenolestidae Trouessart, 1898	Andes Mountains, South America
76,000,000 YBN	503) Laurasiatheres order "Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu} evolve (Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ }, Rhinos). Perissodactyla is an order of herbivorous, odd-toed, hoofed mammals, including the living horses, zebras, asses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and their extinct relatives. They are defined by a number of unique specializations, but the most diagnostic feature is their feet. Most perissodactyls have either one or three toes on each foot, and the axis of symmetry of the foot runs through the middle digit. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria	Laurasia
75,000,000 YBN	204) Oldest fossil of testate amoeba from Grand Canyon, USA. Earliest known protozoan fossil (single celled nonphotosynthesizing eukaryotes). This fossil indicates that the last common ancestor of animals and fungi has already appeared by 750 million years ago.	( black shales of Chuar Group) Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA
75,000,000 YBN	423) Ceratopsian (shield-headed) dinosaurs were common in the late Cretaceous. Examples are Monoclonius, and Styrakosaurus. Triceratops, which lived at the end of Cretaceous, was the largest of its kind, reaching 30 feet in length.
75,000,000 YBN	492) Aardvark (Afrotheres) evolves.	Africa
75,000,000 YBN	504) Laurasiatheres order "Carnivora" evolve (Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas, Seals, Walruses). Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria	Laurasia
75,000,000 YBN	505) Laurasuatheres mammal order "Pholidota" evolves (Pangolin). Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria	Laurasia
74,000,000 YBN	280) # Euasterids I ORDER Garryales ORDER Solanales (deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum {bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento}, cayenne pepper, datura, tomatos, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, water spinach) ORDER Gentianales (gentian, dogbane, carissa (Natal plum), oleander, logania, coffee) ORDER Lamiales (lavender, mint, peppermint, basil, marjoram, oregano, perilla, rosemary, sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame, corkscrew plants, bladderwort, snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, jasmine) ORDER Unplaced: Boraginaceae
73,000,000 YBN	484) The Australian Marsupial Order Peramelemorphia evolves (Bandicoots and Bilbies {BiLBEZ}).	Australia
70,000,000 YBN	424) Two of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs of all time exist. Tyrannosaurus rex is the top predator in North America and Giganotosaurus is in South America.	Americas
70,000,000 YBN	425) The armored ankylosaurs (had a shield back or clubbed tail dinosaur) was the most heavily armored land-animals in the history of earth. These plant-eating were low to the ground for optimal protection. Many had spikes that stuck out from their bone-covered back. Ankylosaurus even had bony plates on its eyelids.
70,000,000 YBN	426) Mosasaurs, marine reptiles evolve.
70,000,000 YBN	493) Tenrecs and golden moles (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria:	Africa
70,000,000 YBN	494) Elephant Shrews (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria:	Africa
70,000,000 YBN	507) Placental Mammals: Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas {PIKuZ} (Order "Lagomorpha") evolve. Rabbits were once classified as rodents, because they also have very prominent gnawing teeth at the front, but were separated into their own order called "Lagomorpha". Lagomorphs and rodents are grouped together in a cohort named "Glires".
70,000,000 YBN	516) Placental Mammals: Tree Shrews and Colugos {KolUGOZ} evolve.
70,000,000 YBN	1383) The giant bird-like dinosaur Gigantoraptor erlianensis lives now.
65,500,000 YBN	55) End of Mesozoic and start of Cenozoic Supereon.
65,500,000 YBN	397) End-Cretaceous mass extinction. 47% of all genera are observed extinct.
65,000,000 YBN	129) Start Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn), end Cretaceous period (144-65 mybn).
65,000,000 YBN	427) Pterosaurs, the flying reptiles of the Mesozoic reached their largest size with Quetzalcoatlus, which had a wing span of 40 ft. This is the largest flying animal ever known.
65,000,000 YBN	429) There is a rapid increase in new species of fossil mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are small.
65,000,000 YBN	468) Birds "Gruiformes" {GrUiFORmEZ} evolve (cranes, rails, bustards). At least one comparison places cuckoos in Gruiformes.
65,000,000 YBN	470) Birds "Strigiformes" {STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
65,000,000 YBN	485) Australian marsupial order "Notoryctemorphia" evolve (Marsupial moles).	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	486) Australian marsupials order "Dasyuromorphia" evolves (Tasmanian Devil, Numbat {nuMBaT}).	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	487) Marsupial order "Microbiotheria" evolves (Monita Del Monte). Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Microbiotheria Ameghino, 1889 Family: Microbiotheriidae Ameghino, 1887 Genus: Dromiciops Thomas, 1894 Species: D. gliroides
65,000,000 YBN	488) Australian marsupials "Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolve (Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas).	Australia
65,000,000 YBN	508) Ancestor of all rodents evolves. The earliest surviving suborder are the "Myomorpha" (rats, mice, gerbils, voles {VOLZ}, lemmings, hamsters). Rodents are an order of mammals characterized by a single pair of ever-growing upper and lower incisors, a maximum of five upper and four lower cheek teeth on each side, and free movement of the lower jaw in an anteroposterior direction. Rodents are the most diverse group of mammals on Earth, consisting of over 2000 species, more than 40% of the known species of mammals on Earth today. Rodents range in size from mice, weighing only a few grams, to the Central American capybara, which is up to 130 cm (4 ft) in length and weighs up to 79 kg (170 lb). Rodents have been found on every continent except Antarctica. Rodents include the semiaquatic swimming (beavers and muskrats), gliding ("flying" squirrels), burrowing (gophers and African mole rats), arboreal (dormice and tree squirrels), and hopping (kangaroo rats and jerboas). Nearly all rodents are herbivorous, with a few exceptions that are partially insectivorous to totally omnivorous, such as the domestic rat. The great adaptability and rapid evolution and diversity of rodents are mainly due to their short gestation periods (only 3 weeks in some mice) and rapid turnover of generations. The most diagnostic feature of the Rodentia is the presence of two pair of ever-growing incisors (one pair above and one below) at the front of the jaws. These teeth have enamel only on the front surface, which allows them to wear into a chisellike shape, giving rodents the ability to gnaw. Beavers, Pocket gophers, Pocket mice and kangaroo rats (Rodents) evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
65,000,000 YBN	509) Rodents: Beavers, Pocket gophers, Pocket mice and kangaroo rats (Rodents) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
65,000,000 YBN	807) This is just after death of dinosaurs. Both these ancestors are still small and probably look like shrews. formerly Artiodactyla
63,000,000 YBN	510) Springhares and Scaly-tailed Squirrels (rodents) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
63,000,000 YBN	587) Primates evolve, most likely in Africa or the Indian subcontinent. The order primates contains more than 300 species, including monkeys, apes, and humans. The primates are one of the most diverse orders of mammals on Earth. They include the lemurs (more than 70 species in six families), the lorises (three or more species in one subfamily), the tarsiers (six or more species in one family), the New World monkeys (almost 100 species in five families), the Old World monkeys (more than 100 species in one family), and the apes and humans (about 20 species in two families). The oldest known fossil remains of primates are about 60 million years old. Unlike most other mammalian orders, the primates cannot be defined by a diagnostic suite of specializations, but are characterized by a combination of primitive features and progressive trends. These include: 1) Increased dominance of vision over olfaction, with eyes more frontally directed, development of stereoscopic vision, and reduction in the length of the snout. 2) Eye sockets of the skull completely encircled by bone. 3) Loss of an incisor and premolar from each half of the upper and lower jaws with respect to primitive placental mammals. 4) Increased size and complexity of the brain, especially those centers involving vision, memory, and learning. 5) Development of grasping hands and feet, with a tendency to use the hands rather than the snout as the primary exploratory and manipulative organ. 6) Progressive elaboration of the placenta in conjunction with longer gestation period, small litter size (only one or two infants), and precocial young. 7) Increased period of infant dependency and more intensive parenting. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates	Africa or India
63,000,000 YBN	588) Cantius and Teilhardina are the earliest euprimates in North America, followed quickly by Steinius and others. Cantius an dTeilhardina also appear in Europe with Donrussellia.
62,000,000 YBN	495) Afrotheres: Elephants evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria:	Africa
60,000,000 YBN	430) In South America, the Andes mountains begin to form.
60,000,000 YBN	431) Oldest fossil rodent.
60,000,000 YBN	432)
60,000,000 YBN	586) The oldest potential primate fossil is from Morocco. The Genus Altiatlasius is known only from several isolated teeth.	Morocco, Africa
60,000,000 YBN	796) Largest terrestrial carnivorous mammal yet found, Andrewsarchus skull dates from now {verify}.
60,000,000 YBN	808) The ancestors of pigs splits from the line that leads to the Ruminants (cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, bison, buffalo, deer, wildebeast, antelope), hippos, dolphins, and whales.
59,000,000 YBN	496) Hyraxes (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorder Afrotheria:	Africa
59,000,000 YBN	497) Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong evolve.
58,000,000 YBN	511) ROdents: Dormice, Mountain Beaver, Squirrels and Marmots evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
58,000,000 YBN	524) Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ} evolve.
57,000,000 YBN	433) Oldest hooved mammal fossil. This is the ancestor of all hooved mammals, including cows, deer, horses and pigs.
55,000,000 YBN	435)
55,000,000 YBN	436) Oldest fossil horse, Hyractotherium, the oldest horse was tiny, about the size of a dog).
55,000,000 YBN	512) Gundis (rodents) evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
55,000,000 YBN	809) Last common ancestor of Ruminants with Hippos, Dolphins and Whales.
54,970,000 YBN	434) From the Hunan Province, China. Other fossils from the same genus are found in Europe. the earliest euprimates can be distinguished as Cantius, Donrussellia and Teilhardina.
54,000,000 YBN	810) The line that leads to hippos and the line to dolphins and whales split.
53,500,000 YBN	812) Oldest fossils of dolphins and whales semiaquatic "Pakicetus".
52,500,000 YBN	6179) (I wonder how different the last pterosaurs and earliest bats are, both warm-blooded, with hair, and featherless flying animals. Two big differences are that pterosaurs were egg laying (presumably) while bats have mammalian live birth, pterosaurs had no nipples, pterosaurs had long beaks. Perhaps if warm blooded and hair evolved once, then there is a common haired warm-blooded ancestor of pterosaurs mammals and birds.)	(Green River Formation) Wyoming
51,000,000 YBN	513) ROdents: Old World Porcupines evolve.
50,000,000 YBN	437) Oldest elephant fossil, an unnamed fossil from Algeria.	Algeria, Africa
50,000,000 YBN	438) Himalayan mountains start to form as India collides with Eurasia. This will continue for millions of years.	Himalyia Mountains, India
50,000,000 YBN	518) Primates: Lorises {LORiSEZ}, Bushbabies, Pottos {PoTTOZ} (Primate Family "Loridae") evolve.
50,000,000 YBN	816)
49,000,000 YBN	439)
49,000,000 YBN	472) Birds "Caprimulgiformes" (nightjars, night hawks, potoos, oilbirds) evolve.
49,000,000 YBN	474) Birds "Falconiformes" {FaLKoNiFORmEZ} evolve (falcons, hawks, eagles, Old World vultures).
49,000,000 YBN	514) African mole rats, cane rats, dassie rats (rodents) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theriiformes Order: Rodentia
49,000,000 YBN	515) Rodents: New World porcupines, guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ}, capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ} evolve.
46,000,000 YBN	817)
45,000,000 YBN	519) Primate: Aye-aye {I-I} evolves.
40,000,000 YBN	440) In Europe the Alpine mountains start to form.	Alpine mountains
40,000,000 YBN	441) Oldest fossil of Miacis, a weasel-like ancestor of bears and dogs.
40,000,000 YBN	525) Primates: New World Monkeys evolve. The ancestor of all New World monkeys probably originates in Africa, but all surviving descendants now live in the Americas, which suggests that a small group of New World monkeys got across the early Atlantic Ocean to South America, perhaps by rafting on fallen trees over a chain of islands. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates	Africa
40,000,000 YBN	815) Renamed by "Zeuglodon" by Richard Owen because is mammal not reptile (saurus=lizard).
37,000,000 YBN	442) Oldest fossil of dog, similar to a weasel, Hesperocyon.
37,000,000 YBN	471) Birds "Apodiformes" {oPoD-i-FORmEZ} evolve (hummingbirds, swifts). (hummingbird colors like grating)
37,000,000 YBN	473) Birds "Coliiformes" (mouse birds) evolve.
37,000,000 YBN	475) Birds: Cuculiformes {KUKUliFORmEZ} evolve (cuckoos, roadrunners, possibly hoatzin). At least one genetic phylogeny places cuckoos in Gruiformes (cranes, rails, bustards).
37,000,000 YBN	476) Birds "Piciformes" {PESiFORmEZ} evolve (woodpeckers, toucans).
34,000,000 YBN	813) Toothed whales (dolphin, sperm whale, killer whale) and Baleen whales (blue, humpback, gray whale) lines split.
34,000,000 YBN	814)
33,000,000 YBN	611) Amniota splits into Sauropsida and Synapsida. Sauropsida leads to all reptiles and birds, while Synapsida leads to all mammals.
30,000,000 YBN	443) Indricotherium the largest land mammal in the history of earth.	India
30,000,000 YBN	520) Primates: True Lemurs (Family Lemuridae) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Family: Lemuridae
28,000,000 YBN	477) Birds "Passeriformes" {PaSRiFORmEZ} (perching songbirds) evolve. This order includes many common birds: crows, jays, sparrows, warblers, mockingbirds, robins, orioles, bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ}, larks, finches. More than half of all species of bird are passerines. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines are one of the most spectacularly successful vertebrate orders: with around 5,400 species, they are roughly twice as diverse as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia.
28,000,000 YBN	811) Last common ancestor of dolphins and whales.
27,000,000 YBN	521) Wooly and Leaping Lemurs (Primates) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Family: Indridae
25,000,000 YBN	444) Oldest cat fossil, "Proailurus".
25,000,000 YBN	522) Sportive, Mouse, and Dwarf Lemurs (primates) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates
25,000,000 YBN	531) Primates: Old World Monkeys evolve. This is also the last common ancestor of the Old World monkeys and the hominoids, the superfamily Hominoidea, which includes apes and humans. There are 20 surviving genera and around 100 species of Old World Monkey. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Family: Cercopithecidae	(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa
24,000,000 YBN	662)
23,000,000 YBN	478) Monotreme: Echidnas evolve. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Order Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Family Tachyglossidae Gill, 1872 - spiny anteaters Genus Zaglossus Gill, 1877 - long-nosed echidna Genus Tachyglossus™ Illiger, 1811 - short-nosed echidna Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Monotremata Family: Tachyglossidae Gill, 1872	Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
23,000,000 YBN	479) Monotreme: "Duck-Billed Platypus" evolves.	Australia and Tasmania
22,000,000 YBN	526) New World Monkeys: Sakis, Uakaris {WoKoREZ}, and Titis {TETEZ} evolve.
22,000,000 YBN	527) New World Monkeys: Howler, Spider and Woolly monkeys evolve.
22,000,000 YBN	528) New World Monkeys: Capuchin {KaPYUCiN} and Squirrel monkeys evolve.	Americas
22,000,000 YBN	558)
22,000,000 YBN	559)
22,000,000 YBN	560)
21,000,000 YBN	529) New World Monkeys: Night (or Owl) monkeys evolve.
21,000,000 YBN	530) New World Monkeys: Tamarins {TaMariNZ} and Marmosets {moRmoSeTS} evolve.
21,000,000 YBN	556)
20,000,000 YBN	549) The ancestor of all the homonids moves over land from Africa into Europe and Asia. An alternative theory has this ancestor in Africa, with a large number of Africa to Eurasia migrations by later species.
20,000,000 YBN	561) Perhaps first the use of simple sounds themselves, later combining sounds to form multisound words will evolve. These simple sounds will evolve into the less than 50 basic sounds that make up all human language now.
18,000,000 YBN	537) Primates: Gibbons evolve. 12 species of Gibbons. Gibbons are very sexual, and polygamous.	South-East Asia
16,000,000 YBN	555) Fossils found in Italy (and possibly East Africa). May have been (earliest) bipedal walker.
15,000,000 YBN	553)
14,000,000 YBN	542) Earliest extant Hominid: Orangutans evolve. Most primitive living Hominid. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Ponginae (Elliot, 1912) Genus: Pongo (Lacépède, 1799)	South-East Asia
13,000,000 YBN	551)
13,000,000 YBN	552) Sivapithecus indicus is an extinct primate and a possible ancestor to the modern orangutan. Specimens of Sivapithecus indicus, roughly 12.5 million to 10.5 million years old (Miocene), have been found at the Petwar plateau in Pakistan as well as in parts of India. The animal was about the size of a chimpanzee but had the facial morphology of an orangutan; it ate soft fruit (detected in the toothwear pattern) and was probably mainly arboreal.
10,500,000 YBN	538) Gibbons: Crested Gibbons evolve.	South-East Asia
10,000,000 YBN	533) Old World Monkeys: Colobus {KoLiBeS} monkeys (Old World Monkey) evolve.	Africa
10,000,000 YBN	534) Old World Monkeys:: Langurs {LoNGURZ} and Proboscis monkeys (Old World Monkey) evolve.	Asia
10,000,000 YBN	535) Old World Monkeys: Guenons {GenONZ} evolve.
10,000,000 YBN	536) Old World Monkeys: Macaques, Baboons, Mandrills evolve.
9,000,000 YBN	550) The ancestor of the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and archaic humans moves over land from Eurasia back into Africa. Alternatively, this ancestor could have evolved in Africa if many earlier ancestors frequently migrated to Eurasia.
7,750,000 YBN	539) Gibbons: Siamangs {SEumANGZ} evolve.	South-East Asia
7,000,000 YBN	469) Birds "Podicipediformes" (grebes) evolve. At least one comparison places Flamingos with Grebes as closely related.
7,000,000 YBN	543) Hominids: Gorillas evolve in Africa.	Africa
7,000,000 YBN	565) The fossil name is "Toumai", found in Chad, central Africa. This fossil poses a problem in that being 7 million years old, this puts it past the genetic distance between a common human and chimpanzee ancestor. Richard Dawkins explains 4 possibilities: 1) this species walked on all fours 2) bipedalism evolved quicky after the chimp/hominid split 3) bipedalism may have evolved more than once 4) chimps and gorillas evolved from a bipedal ancestor Other possibilities include, 1) inaccurate genetic estimate, 2) inaccurate fossil dating, 3) inaccurate fossil reconstruction (the skull was disfigured and had to be reconstructed in 3D on a computer), 4) inaccurate identification of bones as hominid (some people claim it is a female monkey or female gorilla ).
6,100,000 YBN	566) in Kenya, east Africa. about the size of a modern chimpanzee. Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford, the finders of Orrorin, argue that Orrorin is on the direct line leading to modern humans, whereas most of the members of the genus Australopithecus are not. (see image)
6,000,000 YBN	540) Gibbons: Hylobates {HIlOBATEZ} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	541) Gibbons: Hoolocks {HUleKS} evolve.	South-East Asia
6,000,000 YBN	544) Last common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans lives in Africa. This is when the line that leads to chimpanzees and the line that leads to humans separates. (State earliest chimpanzee fossil) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Paninina Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816) Some argue that interbreeding between a chimp ancestor and human ancestor may have resulted in a more recent genetic relationship.	Africa
6,000,000 YBN	1490) Argentavis magnificens ("Magnificent Argentine Bird") the largest flying bird ever known lives in Argentina.	Argentina
5,800,000 YBN	569) Two species †Ardipithecus kadabba, 5.8 to 5.2 mybn †Ardipithecus ramidus, 5.4 to 4.2 mybn size of modern chimpanzee.
5,000,000 YBN	554)
4,400,000 YBN	546) Hominid: Ardipithecus. Earliest bipedal primate. Richard Dawkins describes the major theories of why two leg walking evolved from four leg walking: 1) to carry food home, for later use or for others (leopard uses jaw) 2) as an adaption to squat feeding (turning over stones to look for insects) 3) for males to show their penises, and for females to hide their vaginas. I am adding: 4) that walking was a sign of dominance or superiority, perhaps made the body look larger, and a female more sophisticated(?). 5) easier to use hand held weapons (and tools?). 6) becoming apex predetor (top-of-food-chain) on land removes fear of walking, allows spreading over land away from tree life. Don Johanson hypothesized that as Africa changed from jungle to savannah, hominids had to travel farther for food, thus making two-leg walking more efficient , but this claim is disputed by one experiment by Taylor and Rowntree which indicates that there is no energy gain from 4-leg to 2-leg movement.	Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya, Africa
4,000,000 YBN	445) Oldest Australopithecus fossil.	Sterkfontein, South Africa
4,000,000 YBN	547) Hominid: Australopithecus (x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS} evolves in Africa.	Sterkfontein, South Africa
3,700,000 YBN	570) Thought to be made by australopithicus afarensis. Some analysts have noted that the smaller of the two clearest trails bears telltale signs that suggest whoever left the prints was burdened on one side -- perhaps a female carrying an infant on her hip.
3,500,000 YBN	568) in Kenya, east Africa. Tim White argues that this skull has 4,000 individual bone pieces which could be easily deformed, and that in the absence of other skulls Kenyanthropus being a new genus needs to be verified. may simply be a specimen of Australopithecus afarensis.
3,390,000 YBN	269) Oldest evidence of stone used as tool.	Dikika, Ethiopia
3,180,000 YBN	571)
3,000,000 YBN	446) North and South America connect.
2,700,000 YBN	564) Paranthropus {Pa RaN tru PuS}, a line of extinct bipedal early hominids evolves in Africa.	Africa
2,500,000 YBN	447) Homo Habilis evolves. Homo Habilis is the earliest member of genus "Homo". Homo habilis is thought to be the ancestor of Homo ergaster. Homo Habilis evolved in Africa. The oldest Homo Habilis fossil is from this time. As the habilis brain grows, habilis gains a larger memory.	Africa
2,500,000 YBN	455) Oldest formed stone tools. This begins the "Stone Age", the Paleolithic ("Old Stone Age").	Gona, Ethiopia
2,400,000 YBN	827) End of Pleistocene (PlISTOSEN) epoch, start of Holocene epoch. This is the start of the Mesolithic part of the Stone Age.
2,000,000 YBN	545) Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ} and Common Chimpanzee line splits in Africa.	Africa
1,800,000 YBN	130) Start Quaternary period (1.8 mybn-now), end Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn).
1,800,000 YBN	563) Homo erectus evolves. Homo ergaster is the African Homo erectus and the ancestor of Homo sapiens. The most complete Homo ergaster is the 1.5 million year old "Turkana Boy".	Africa
1,800,000 YBN	826) End Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn), start Quaternary period (1.8 mybn-now). This is also the start of the start of Pleistocene (PlISTOSEN) epoch.
1,700,000 YBN	449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia from Africa. Oldest Homo erectus fossil outside of Africa. Homo sapiens have been around for only some 200,000 years, but Homo erectus is thought to have lived for 1 million years from 1.5 million to 500,000 years before now.
1,500,000 YBN	562)
1,500,000 YBN	583) Earliest evidence of use of fire, burned bones from Swartkrans cave in South Africa. This fire could have been made by Australopithecus (or Paranthropus) robustus and an early species of Homo, possibly Homo erectus.	(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South Africa
1,440,000 YBN	448) Most recent Homo Habilis fossil. This skull shows that Homo habilis and Homo erectus both were living at this time.	Kenya, Africa
1,000,000 YBN	589) Homo erectus evolves far less body hair, except head hair, facial hair, airpit, chest and groin areas. This is thought to be driven by male sexual selection of less haired females, perhaps because less hair means less body lice and so is more desirable. No other surviving apes have taken this direction. (I wonder if the development of wearing fur for heat may have resulted in the loss of need for body hair. It seems clear that some kind of clothing would be necessary to survive the winters in Europe and Asia - which would put the wearing of clothes to at least 1.7 million years ago.)
1,000,000 YBN	1479) Earliest Homo genus bone (a tooth) in Western Europe.	Madrid, Spain
970,000 YBN	200) That humans (Homo antecessor) wear clothing at this time is implied by the cold climate that occurred at the same time that stone tools found in the area were used. The earliest genetic evidence of humans wearing clothes, is based on the differences of the head and body louse and puts the change to around 80,000 years before now. (It seems impossible that Homo erectus would be able to survive in Europe and Asia without clothes or fur which would put clothes wearing to around 1.7 mybn when Erectus enters Eurasia. Perhaps the loss of body hair in erectus coincides with the wearing of clothing for warmth.) (An interesting fact is that no chimpanzees or other primates beside hominids were able to survive in northern climates - verify. This implies that clothing and/or tool-making made the necessary difference.)	Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK
790,000 YBN	584) Second most early evidence of controlled use of fire.	Gesher Benot Ya`aqov, Israel
400,000 YBN	615) Oldest evidence of spear.	Schöningen, Germany.
200,000 YBN	548) Humans (Homo sapiens) evolve in Africa. State path to humans from bilaterian via surviving species. (Describe what this ancestor of all living humans may have looked like. Some interesting points: the hair and skin color was probably like a chimpanzee, lighter skin with dark straight hair. This implies that the darker skin and curly hair of many modern African human, in addition to specific racial traits (red or yellow hair, various skin colors) develops later.) Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Genus: Homo Species: H. sapiens Subspecies: H. s. sapiens	Ethiopia, Africa
200,000 YBN	590) Human language of thirty short sounds begins to develop. This is the beginning of the transition from the verbal language of chimps and monkeys, that will result in the short staccato language humans use now. Either the majority of the 30 basic sounds were learned simultaneously for all sapiens by word of mouth or those 50 basic sounds evolved before the sapiens dispersed throughout Eurasia. That sapiens of Eurasia do not develop unique base sounds is evidence that the 50 base sounds of all human language completely developed in Africa before the sapiens movement from Africa into Eurasia and the Americas.
195,000 YBN	161) Oldest human (Homo sapiens) skull, in Ethiopia, Africa.
190,000 YBN	595) This transformation did not occur in Neanderthals.
190,000 YBN	600) Perhaps this was an imitation of snakes. This family of sounds may be the original of the J, j, t, and w (as in "the") sounds.
170,000 YBN	592) There is a clear difference between these sounds when a word is started with one of these sounds, and these sounds form clearly distinct and new sound inventions (l,m,n,r).
160,000 YBN	591)
150,000 YBN	601) Since these sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) are so easily spoken, some people probably think that these sounds may have evolved first, but listening to chimpanzees and other primates, it is clear that vowels are more easily spoken, and the muscle control to make short duration sounds (to quickly close the windpipe), necessary for this family of sounds, evolved later. This is still a large amount of speculation, but clearly the 50 major sounds can be grouped into at least 4 major groups, which must have originated at different times (and ofcourse, developed into new sounds at some later time).
130,000 YBN	450) Neanderthals evolve from Homo ergaster (African Homo erectus) in Europe and Western Asia. Oldest Neanderthal fossil in Croatia.	Europe and Western Asia
120,000 YBN	572) lasts from 120,000 to 20,000 ybn. Connects land bridge between Asia and Americas.
100,000 YBN [98000 BC]	257) Theory of Gods controlling universe created by early humans. The explanation that many phenomena in the universe are controlled by objects with human and animal bodies that have supernatural powers is one of the earliest theories that tries to explain how the universe works. This theory will last for all of recorded history to the present time, over 5000 years. Although polytheism will fall in popularity to monotheism which is introduced around 1300 BCE by the Egyptian Pharoah Amenhotep IV. The theory of gods is recorded in the earliest recorded stories of history 4600 years before now. The theory that a god or gods controls the universe is perhaps the oldest theory that is still believed by some humans.	Africa
95,000 YBN [93000 BC]	594) Homo sapiens move out of Africa into Eurasia. This is the beginning of differences in race within the human species. It is not clear if this is the primary dispersal. Some people think the main sapiens dispersal did not happen until 45,000 ybn.. This is also the last common ancestor of native African and non-African humans and the beginning of racial differences.
92,000 YBN [90000 BC]	597) Oldest human (Homo sapiens) skull outside Africa, in Israel. The Jebel Qafzeh skull. This may represent an early and presumably short lived movement of early sapiens.	(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel
60,000 YBN [58000 BC]	573) Oldest evidence of humans in Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra Furada, Brazil. The evidence is controversial. Some people argue that the chipped stones are geoartifacts, but the artifact finders argue that the chips are too regular to be made from falling rocks.
53,300 YBN [51300 BC]	557) Homo Erectus extinct. Most recent Homo Erectus fossil in Southeast Asia (Java). This shows that Homo erectus lived at the same time as Homo sapiens. These ages are 20,000 to 400,000 years younger than previous age estimates for these hominids and indicate that H. erectus may have survived on Java at least 250,000 years longer than on the Asian mainland, and perhaps 1 million years longer than in Africa.	Ngandong, Indonesia
46,000 YBN [44000 BC]	577) Earliest evidence of water ship. Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach Australia by water ship. Earliest evidence of water ship. Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach Australia by water ship. (In theory humans could have accidentally reached Australia on floating trees, but it seems doubtful to me.)
43,000 YBN [41000 BC]	1187) At this site, which by radiocarbon dating is 43,000 years old, paleolithic humans mined for the iron-containing mineral hematite, which they ground to produce the red pigment ochre. Sites of a similar age where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools have been found in Hungary.	Swaziland, Africa
42,000 YBN [40000 BC]	596) Oldest Homo sapiens fossil in Australia. "Mungo Man"
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	598) Oldest Homo sapiens fossil in Europe from the Cro-Magnon site in France 40,000 also marks the decline of Neaderthal populations until their extinction 10,000 years later.
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	604) Oldest evidence of oil lamp.	Southwest France
40,000 YBN [38000 BC]	5871)	Hohle Fels Cave, Germany
38,000 YBN [36000 BC]	574) At Old Crow Basin, in the Yukon, broken mammoth bones date at 25,000 to 40,000 years.
32,000 YBN [01/01/30000 BC]	1262) The Chauvet Cave paintings in Southern France are created and are the oldest known human made paintings.	Southern France
32,000 YBN [30000 BC]	602) Oldest evidence of weaving. The earliest evidence of weaving are 32,000 year old flax fibers. Some of the flax fibers are spun, dyed, and knotted. Other early evidence of weaving is from textile and flexible basketry impressions on burnt clay from Pavlov in the Czech Republic which date to between 27,000-25,000 ybn (see image). The oldest woven cloth so far discovered is made from flax, dates to about 9000 ybn, and comes from Çayönü, Turkey. (It's not clear what the date on the died fabrics is.)	Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia
31,700 YBN [29700 BC]	42) Humans raise dogs. (Dog domesticated). One theory supported by evidence is that dog anatomy changes abruptly from wolf anatomy as a result of domestication by humans.	Goyet cave, Belgium
30,000 YBN [28000 BC]	575) Mitochondrial DNA shows a sapiens migration to the Americas now.
30,000 YBN [28000 BC]	599) Oldest Homo sapiens fossil in China, from the Zhoukoudian Cave in China.
29,000 YBN [27000 BC]	6215) The Venus figurines are created around this time. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice is the oldest of these ceramic objects at 29,000 years old. This figurine, together with a few others from nearby locations, is the oldest known ceramic in the world, predating the earliest pottery of China (18,000) by 11,000 years. Some of the figurines appear to be wearing clothing.	Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia
28,000 YBN [26000 BC]	451) Most recent Neanderthal fossil. Genetic evidence suggests interbreeding took place with Homo sapiens between roughly 80,000 and 50,000 years ago in the Middle East, resulting in 1–4% of the genome of people from Eurasia having been contributed by Neanderthals.	Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain
26,000 YBN [24000 BC]	6224) Earliest "fired" clay (clay dried and hardened by fire).	Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech Republic
23,000 YBN [21000 BC]	6231) Earliest human-made structure. A stone wall. The oldest wall in Jericho, also a stone wall dates to 8,000 BCE.	(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece
20,000 YBN [18000 BC]	576) Y Chromosome DNA shows a sapiens migration to the Americas now.
20,000 YBN [18000 BC]	1291) Frankhthi cave, (Greek Σπήλαιον Φράγχθη) in the Peloponnese, is occupied by paleolithic people. This cave will be occupied until 3000 BCE.	in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern Argolid, is a cave overlooking the Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village of Koilada.
19,000 YBN [17000 BC]	6184) Cereal gathering.	Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia)
18,000 YBN [16000 BC]	603) Oldest evidence of pottery.	(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan Province, China
17,000 YBN [15000 BC]	6225) Earliest rope, a 30 cm fragment of rope, only 7 or 8 mm in diameter.	Lascaux, France
14,000 YBN [12000 BC]	6227) Oldest known map.	Mezhirich, Ukraine
13,000 YBN [11000 BC]	578) The earliest bones of a human in the Americas, a skull (Peñon woman) from Mexico and bones from "Arlington Springs" woman, in the California Channel Islands date to now.	Mexico City and Arlington Canyon on Santa Rosa Island, California, USA
13,000 YBN [11000 BC]	579) "Spirit Caveman", skull found in Nevada, dates to now.
12,500 YBN [10500 BC]	582) This date puts the possibility of walking over the Being Straight in doubt.
11,500 YBN [9500 BC]	581)
11,500 YBN [9500 BC]	719) Earliest evidence of rice cultivation in China.	Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan provinces), China
11,130 YBN [9130 BC]	1292) Göbekli Tepe is formed by Neolithic people in Southwestern Turkey. The oldest stone buildings are located in Göbekli Tepe, and are evidence that hunter gatherer people built structures before learning agriculture.	=9130BCE
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	606) Oldest city, Jericho. Jericho is located in the West bank, near the Jordan river (east of Mediterranean). Jericho is one of the earliest continuous settlements on Earth, starting from perhaps about 9000 bce. This city provides evidence of the first permanent settlements.	Jericho, (modern West Bank) Palestine
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	617) Goats kept, fed, milked, and killed for food.	Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori, Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh (10,000).
11,000 YBN [9000 BC]	1290) Spirit Cave (Thai: ถ้ำผีแมน) is occupied by Hoabinhian hunter gatherer people. This cave is occupied by the Hoabinhian people from about 9000 until 5500 BCE.	Pangmapha district, Mae Hong Son Province, northwest Thailand
10,700 YBN [8700 BC]	829) Humans shape metal objects. Oldest copper (and metal) artifact, from Northern Iraq. This starts the "Copper Age" (Chalcolithic). This is a copper ear ring. Copper is the first metal shaped by humans.	Northern Iraq
10,500 YBN [8500 BC]	6315) Sheep raised for wool, skins, meat and dung (for fuel).	Northern Zagros to southeastern Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern Mediterranean
10,350 YBN [8350 BC]	828) Cities described as Neolithic ("New Stone Age") start to appear.
10,000 YBN [01/01/8000 BC]	1259) Neolithic (clay) tokens of various geometrical shapes replace Palaeolithic notched tallies. These geometrical tokens probably represent different quantities, and probably do not represent the type of commodity because clay objects have been found which are presumed to represent the various commodities. These geometrical tokens will be used without disruption for 5000 years, when the use of abstract numbers occurs, which in turn will lead to writing around 5300 YBN, and then to mathematics around 4600 YBN. These tokens are the first clay objects of the Near East, and they are the first to use most of the basic geometric forms, such as spheres, triangles, discs, cylinders, cones, tetrahedrons, rhombuses, quadrangles, etc.	Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	205) Pigs raised and killed for food.	(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean and Island South East Asia|southeastern Anatolia
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	614) Oldest evidence of bow and arrow. The earliest potential arrow heads date from about 64,000 ybn in the South African Sibudu Cave. The first actual bow fragments are the Stellmoor bows from northern Germany.	Stellmoor (near Hamburg), Germany
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	6233) Stone wall constructed in Jericho.	Jericho (modern West Bank)
10,000 YBN [8000 BC]	6316) Cow raised for milk, meat and for plowing.	upper Euphrates Valley
9,300 YBN [7300 BC]	6185) Wheat grown.	southeastern Turkey and northern Syria
9,240 YBN [7240 BC]	1478) Oldest domesticated plants in the Americas. Squash grown in Peru.	Paiján, Peru
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	273) The oldest woven cloth so far discovered is made from flax, dates to about 9000 ybn, and comes from Çayönü, Turkey.	Çayönü, Turkey
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	1288) Mehrgarh is one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BCE to 3200 BCE) sites in archaeology. Mehrgarh lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia.
9,000 YBN [7000 BC]	1289) Jarmo, a Neolithic settlement in Iraq is founded.	Iraq
8,600 YBN [6600 BC]	848) In 2003, symbols carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells were discovered in China. The shells were found buried with human remains in 24 Neolithic graves unearthed at Jiahu in Henan province, western China. According to archaeologists, the writing on the shells had similarities to written characters used thousands of years later during the Shang dynasty, which lasted from 1700 BC-1100 BC. This creates a space of about 5,000 years between these symbols and the next oldest which may indicate that they are not related.	Jiahu, in central China's Henan Province
8,410 YBN [6410 BC]	580) "Kennewick Man", a skull and other bones found in Washington State, dates to now.
8,200 YBN [6200 BC]	1295) One of the oldest known maps is painted on a wall of the Catal Huyuk settlement in south-central Anatolia (now Turkey).	Catal Huyuk
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	605) Oldest known boat, the Pesse canoe, a dug-out boat.	Netherlands
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	607)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	608)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	609) Oldest evidence of einkorn grown.
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	610) Oldest evidence of flax grown.
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	612) Oldest evidence of barley grown.
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	613) Oldest evidence of millet grown.
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	616)
8,000 YBN [6000 BC]	6220) Earliest drum. Drums appear with wide geographic distribution in archaeological excavations from Neolithic times onward; one excavated in Moravia is dated to 6000 bce.	Moravia, Czeck Republic
7,300 YBN [5300 BC]	626) Eridu (Ubaid) a settlement in southern Iraq is founded.	south Iraq, shore of Persian Gulf
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	618)
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	619)
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	620) City of Akkad.
7,000 YBN [5000 BC]	627) Oldest evidence of copper melting and casting. Moorey writes "Casting involves, at its simplest, pouring liquid metal into a suitably shaped mould of baked clay, stone, metal, or sand. The earliest moulds to survive in archaeological contexts are one-piece, of clay or stone. They remained usual for the manufacture of simple tools, flat weapons such as tanged arrowheads, bar0ingots...and jewellery. Simple jewellery moulds of stone are more common in excavations than their more complex relatives used for tools and weapons. ... Tw-piece (bivalve) moulds, probably of baked clay at first, were introduced some time in the fourth millenium, if not before, with core pieces for sockets when required, as on axe, adze- and hammer0heads. ...It was probably common practice to cast the simple tools in open moulds and subsequently hammer them to the desired shape. ...".	Belovode, Eastern Serbia
6,900 YBN [4900 BC]	648) Oldest evidence of sail boat.	Mesopotamia
6,500 YBN [01/01/4500 BC]	1263) Symbols on clay pottery, known as the Old European script, or Vinča script, may represent a written language.	Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia)
6,500 YBN [4500 BC]	1293) The earliest known astronomical monument, an assembly of huge stones in Nabta, Egypt.	Nabta, Egypt
6,250 YBN [4250 BC]	720) Earliest evidence of Corn (maize) grown in Americas.	Oaxaca, Mexico
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	830) Oldest iron artifacts, made of iron from meteorites, in Egypt. Some might argue this is the beginning of the Iron Age, but others would start the Iron Age only at smelting and casting of Iron.	Egpyt
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	1061) Humans ride horses.	Ukraine
6,000 YBN [4000 BC]	6232) Sun-dried mud brick and mud-brick house. The early Ubaid period settlement is founded on marshy soil ans may have been a camping place, because no walls exist at this level. A thick layer of reed matting is the earliest sign of occupation. Above that in later Ubaid levels, walls are found to have been built, first of pisé (Clay, earth, or gravel beaten down until it is solid and used as a building material for floors and walls) and then mud-brick.	Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
5,800 YBN [3800 BC]	6235) Early map of Northern Mesopotamia. This map, found near the town of Harran, which dates to c. 3800 BCE, clearly shows the northern part of Mesopotamia, with the Euphrates and its tributary the Wadi-Harran, the Zagros Mountains in the east, and the Lebanon or Anti-Lebanon in the west. The mountains and rivers are clearly marked, and circles stand for the cities.	Harran, Mesopotamia
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	621)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	622)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	623)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	625) Donkey kept, fed and used to transport.
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	630) Historians generally ascribe the first use of coined money to Croesus, king of Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The earliest coins are made of electrum, a natural mixture of gold and silver, and are crude, bean-shaped ingots bearing a primitive punch mark certifying to either weight or fineness or both.	Lydia, Anatolia
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	634)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	646) The earliest known wheel, a pottery wheel, comes from Mesopotamia. Sir Leonard Woolley who excavates Ur (in modern Iraq) between 1922 and 1934, writes "...Low down in this 'Uruk' stratum we found a remarkable object, a heavy disc of baked clay about 3 feet in diameter with a central pivot-hole and a small hole near the rim to take a handle; it was a pooter's wheel as used by the makers of the Uruk vases, the earliest known example of that invention whereby man passed from the age of pure handicraft into the age of machinery....". Moorey writes "There are no certain illustrations of potters' wheels from Mesopotamia and the material evidence is ... meagre... No certain example of a tournette - a slowly turning wheel- has yet been published from a prehistoric context, though their use has been assumed from the evidence of the vessels produced on them. Nissen...has postulated the emergence of a 'pivoted working surface (tournette)' towards the end of the Halaf period {ULSF: 5500 BC}, largely on the basis of changes in the type and layout of painted patterns on pottery at this time. By the end of the Ubaid period {ULSF: 4000BC}, he argued, a more sophisticated device had appeared to be fully exploited for the first time in the Uruk period: 'setting the wheel's axle in bearings and hence the creation of an actual potter's wheel. It is possible that plano-convex disks of gypsum from Tell Abada in the Hamrin, where there is other evidence for on-site pottery manufacture, may have been pivoted for pot-building on the upper flat surface...". Another similar pottery wheel dates back to the Protoliterate Period which is approximately 3500BC-2900BC. The piece was excavated at the site of Choga Mish (Iran) and is one of a few pieces to have survived the excavation due to the destruction of the dig house during the Iranian Revolution.	Mesopotamia (and a similar pottery wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	1260) The earliest certain writing on baked clay tablets is invented in Sumer and replaces a clay token counting system. These "numerical tablets" represent the first recorded place value number system (the position of the number is multiplied by a base number), a sexagesimal (base 60) numbering system. This base 60 numbering system will be used continuously to count time, for astronomy, and geography, and is still in use today. The first writing begins as numbers on clay tablets, some also with stamped seals. This system of writing on clay tablets will evolve into modern written language. Writing was first used to solve simple accounting problems; for example to count large numbers of sheep or bales of hay. Writing may have arisen out of the need for arithmetic and storage of information, but will grow to record and perpetuate stories, myths, epics, songs, and most of what we know about human history. Counting tablets replace a token counting system in Sumer, and represent the first recorded written numbers with place value (the position of the number is multiplied by another number called the base or radix) and the beginning of the sexagesimal (has a base of 60) numbering system. This sexagesimal system is a mixed radix system with an alternating base 6 and base 10. There are dots for number 1 through 9, is first place value numbering system has no symbol for zero. A base-60 numbering system is still used to measure time (60 seconds, 60 minutes, etc), angles, and geographic coordinates. Initially, the commodity counted is not indicated, but will be gradually added to the number system, for example with a seal or drawing (pictograph) of the commodity. In 300 years this will be replaced by tablets with a number to represent quantity and a picture to represent the commodity. This number and picture script will evolve into written language. In this writing, each symbol represent a single object (numeral, noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, or adverb). Symbols sounds are not yet added together to form a single word (phonetic). Around this time three cylinders are used as a stamp for a signature. Seals have two main types—the stamp and cylinder. Stamp seals precede cylinders, first appearing in Mesopotamia developing over a period of about 1,500 years until largely replaced by the cylinder in the 2000s bce. The cylinder first appears in Mesopotamia in the late 3000s bce and continues to be used there until the 300s bce. The cylinder seal is also widespread in Elam, Syria, and Egypt (in the 2000s bce) and in Cyprus and the Aegean (in the 1000s bce).	Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran)
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	1285) The origin of writing is not clear but centers on Mesopotamia, Egypt and Harrapa who all trade with each other.	Harrapa
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	1296) Uruk is founded. Uruk is refered to as "Erech" in the Hebrew Bible. Uruk may be where the name Iraq originates. Uruk represents one of the world's first cities, with a dense population. Uruk will also see the rise of the state in Mesopotamia with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society. Uruk is one of the oldest and most important cities of Sumer. According to the Sumerian king list, Uruk was founded by Enmerkar, who brought the official kingship with him. In the epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, he is also said to have constructed the famous temple called E-anna, dedicated to the worship of Inanna (the later Ishtar). Uruk is also the capital city of Gilgamesh, hero of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. According to the Bible (Genesis 10:10), Erech (Uruk) was the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar. Historical kings of Uruk include Lugalzagesi of Umma (who conquered Uruk) and Utu-hegal.	Uruk
5,500 YBN [3500 BC]	6223) Sundial, earliest timekeeping device. The first device for indicating the time of day was probably the gnomon, dating from about 3500 bc. The gnomon is a vertical object and the length of it's shadow indicates the time of day. The earliest known sundial still preserved is an Egyptian shadow clock of green schist dating to the 8th century BCE. The hour-glass, which uses a fixed quantity of fine sand falling through a small hole, is also invented around this time..	China and Chaldea
5,490 YBN [3490 BC]	702) Earliest cotton grown.	Northwestern Peru|Indus valley
5,400 YBN [3400 BC]	913) Archives of clay tablets in Uruk.
5,310 YBN [3310 BC]	704) Earliest evidence for wheeled vehicle and animal (ox) pulled vehicles. Ox pulled vehicles. The earliest instance of a wheeled vehicle is from the TRB (Funnel Beaker) culture in Bronocice, in north-east Krakow Poland and is a pot incised decoration that has the repeated motif of a schematically rendered four-wheeled vehicle. Note the Y-junction with the yoke.	(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture) Bronocice, Krakow, Poland
5,300 YBN [01/01/3300 BC]	1261) In Sumer, counting tablets evolve into the beginning of pictographic writing. Now along with numbers on the clay tablets are symbols that represent the commodity (such as cows, sheep, and cereals). These symbols represent the earliest record of what will become the modern alphabet. These tablets are all economic records, used to keep a record of objects owned or traded, and contain no stories. Writing begins as a method for increasing the human memory to keep track of the many transactions of a city, and not for the purpose of recording or remembering stories. With the beginning of writing, begins the first systematic training and industry of scribes and this will ultimately evolve into the modern school system. These symbols are drawn with curved lines which will later be replaced by the easier and faster to draw straight lines and later the wedges of cuneiform. The symbol for ox ("gud" in Sumerian, later "aleph" in Egyptian) will become the letter "A" (alpha), the symbol for house, (/e/ in Sumerian and /bitum/ in Akkadian ) will become "B" (beta), (list others: see photo), although this writing is not yet phonetic, each symbol still representing only one word. This writing, taken together with the sounds of this spoken language, are the earliest evidence that the 30 main sounds of human language still in use, were invented before writing. In Sumerian are the vowels |i| |e| |o| |v| (possibly |u| |E| |U| and |O|) and the consonents: |D||T|, |B||P|, |G||K|, |Z||S||s|, |L||R| (and |l||m||n||r|), and finally |h|(check), which leaves: the vowels: |a| (cat), |A| (ate), |I| (eye), |v| (umlow), |x| (awe) and the consonents |H|, |C|, |F|, |J|, |t| (three), |z| (the), curled r |q|, |V|, |W|, and |Y| to be invented after this time.(needs more checking) Around 1200 symbols have been identified in these ancient texts, around 60 are numerals. One text from this time (Uruk IV) is a "titles and professions" list, which is the most popular list, copies of these lists span over a thousand years. This list describes titles and professions probably arranged according to rank, starting with the symbol for king, and is evidence that the social order is already well defined in a strict hierarchy by the time writing is invented. With the beginning of writing, begins the first systematic training and industry of scribes. Many excavated tablets are "scribal excersize" tablets, where impressions are drawn repeatedly in rows. Administrative texts without personal designations or summations are thought to be school exercizes. Writing will be continuously taught eventually in all major civilizations (even through the Dark Ages) until now.	Sumer
5,250 YBN [3250 BC]	637)
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	650)
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	1060)	Indus Valley
5,200 YBN [3200 BC]	1266) Günter Dreyer, director of the German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo, found writing on a group of small bone or ivory labels dating from 3,300 to 3,200 BC. The labels were attached to bags of linen and oil in the tomb of King Scorpion I in Egypt. They apparently indicated the origin of the commodities. Some artifacts have unique symbols that do not appear in later writing, and so cannot be deciphered. Some labels have symbols also seen in later hieroglyphics, and are deciphered. Because of this find there is some debate over whether writing started in Sumer or Egypt, but most people have the opinion that writing started in Sumer since there is a continuity of tokens to numerical clay tablets to writing, where in Egypt there are few artifacts that hint at the development of written language. Writing development in Sumer is much more documented. Only time and more excavating will help answer this question.	Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	638)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	639)
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	640) There is a Mesopotamia influence in pictures drawn in egypt, which include winged griffins, serpent necked felines, and pairs of entwined species. A knife found at Gebel el Arak has a handle with one side Mesopotamian style ships, and the other side a human standing over two lions dressed in Mesopotamian clothes.
5,100 YBN [3100 BC]	641) Narmer palette (tablet) carved with pictures showing unification of egypt under king Narmer, who starts the first Egyptian Dynasty of history (Dynasty 1). The top of the palette has two faces of the cow-headed goddess Hathor. Between the Hathor heads is name of Narmer, a "n'r" fish and a "mr" chisel (this is the oldest egyptian writing). Is this the earliest clear record of a god and of the theory of gods ruling the universe?
5,000 YBN [01/01/3000 BC]	1265) The proto-cuneiform Sumarian script becomes phonetic (the sounds of symbols are combined to form words). This is the beginning of phonetic written language. Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for "arrow" that is now also defined as the Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which starts with the same sound. After this phonetic abstraction, the introduction of syllabograms (symbols that form syllables of multi-symbol words), names and words for which no symbols had existed can be created. For example, the symbol originally defined as the Summerian verb "bal" (to dig) can also be spelled with the syllabic signs "ba" + "al", while the Akkadian word for dig ("heru") sounds differently.(show image if possible) The vast majority of Sumerian language is made of one-syllable words. Perhaps all earlier spoken languages contained single-syllable words. Sumerian contains syllabic symbols, where a symbol represents a consonent and a vowel together such as /Bo/ (ball), or /Bv/ (put), although some vowel sounds have one symbol and are true letters. This writing will later be fully alphabetic when the consonents are represented by one symbol and the vowel at the end dropped.	Jemdet Nasr
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	628) Oldest evidence of bronze (copper mixed with tin) melted, and casted.	Tell Judaidah, Turkey|Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	645) Oldest evidence of irrigation in Egypt.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	647) Boats made of reed used on the Nile.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	649)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	651)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	653) Oldest stone buildings yet found, in Egypt.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	664) Oldest evidence of soldering and welding.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	665) Oldest evidence of wine making in Egpyt.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	666)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	668)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	669)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	670) Cheops funeral ship dates to now.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	671)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	672) Masonry (plaster?) dam over Wadi Gerrawi.
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	673) Oldest evidence for use of adze and bow drill in Egypt.	Egypt
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	674)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	675)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	676)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6219)	Sumer (modern Iraq)
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6222)	Egypt?
5,000 YBN [3000 BC]	6226) Abacus. The abacus is a bead and wire analog counting and calculating computer which appears around 3000 BC in Mesopotamia as a sand-covered board in which marks are made by finger or stick. The name "abacus" derives from the (Sumerian?) word for "dust". The traditional wire and bead form occurs in Egypt around 500 BC.	Mesopotamia
4,980 YBN [2980 BC]	654) Imhotep (flourished 2980-2950 BCE), the first scientist of history, is credited with being the designer of the "step pyramid", the earliest of the Egyptian pyramids.	Sakkara, Egypt
4,925 YBN [2925 BC]	643)
4,800 YBN [2800 BC]	629) The Akkadian language, which is the earliest recorded semitic language is first seen in proper names recorded on clay tablets in Sumer. This language will eventually replace the non-semitic Sumerian language but Sumerian will last for another 1000 years before going extinct in 1800 BCE. Bilingual lexical lists with both Akkadian and Sumerian are created around this time and are the first dictionaries ever created on earth. These will help later people to understand Sumerian. The Akkadian language has no written form and so Akkadian speaking people adopt the Sumerian script for their own language and this accelerates the process of phonetic abstraction. This phonetic abstraction of Sumerian will allow the development of cuneiform which uses phonetic symbols, which are direct ancestors of the modern letters of the alphabet. Akkadian words sound different from Sumerian words and so Akkadian speaking people may apply the Sumerian phonetic symbols to represent Akkadian words (or Akkadian speaking people may have been the first to make Sumerian symbols as phonetic letters). Akkadian has two different forms for verbs depending on tense and mode, and so verbs cannot be expressed with a single symbol as they can in Sumerian.
4,800 YBN [2800 BC]	1276) The first recorded political assembly occurs in Sumer. Gilgamesh, the king of Erech (Uruk), Gilgamesh, goes before an assembly of elders to ask for permission to fight against the city of Kish instead of being ruled by Agga, the king of Kish. Gilgamesh supports the idea of fighting against Kish, and he goes before an assembly of elders, who vote not to fight but instead to submit to Kish in the interest of peace, however a second assembly, which consists of men with weapons votes to fight against Kish. Agga attacks Erech, and the text is not yet fully understood, but somehow Gilgamesh gains the friendship of Agga and has the siege stopped without a fight.	Sumer, Uruk, Kish,
4,750 YBN [2750 BC]	320) Earliest saw.	Mesopotamia
4,600 YBN [01/01/2600 BC]	1258) In Sumer, several centuries after their invention of cuneiform, the practice of writing expands beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists and is applied for the first time to written messages, mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records and other pursuits. Following this, the first formal schools are established, usually under the guidance of a city-state's primary temple.	Sumer
4,600 YBN [2600 BC]	1269) Enmebaragesi is the earliest ruler on the Sumerian king list whose name is attested directly from archaeological remains, two alabaster vase fragments with inscriptions about him found at Nippur - where he is said to have built the first temple according to the Sumerian Tummal chronicle.	Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of modern Bagdad
4,600 YBN [2600 BC]	1271) The oldest known written story (or literature), the Sumerian flood story, the "Ziusudra epic" is known from a single fragmentary tablet, writing in Sumerian. The name Ziusudra means "found long life" or "life of long days". The first part tells the story of the creation of man, animals and the first cities, Eridu, Badtibira, Larak, Sippar, and Shuruppak. After a missing section in the tablet, the story describes how the gods send a flood to destroy mankind. The god Enki (lord of the underworld ocean of fresh water and Sumerian equivalent of Ea) warns Ziusudra of Shuruppak to build a large boat (the passage describing the directions for the boat is also lost). When the tablet resumes, it tells about a terrible storm that rages for seven days. Then (the god) Utu (|vTv| or |oTo| or |uTu|) (the sun) appears and Ziusudra opens a window, prostrates himself, and sacrifices an ox and a sheep. After another break the text resumes, the flood is apparently over, and Ziusudra is prostrating himself before An (|oN|) (the sky-god) and Enlil (the chief of the gods), who give him "breath eternal" and take him to live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem is lost. More than 80% of all known Sumerian literary compositions have been found at Nippur. The name Ziusudra also appears in the WB-62 version of the Sumerian king list as a king/chief of Shuruppak who reigned for 10 (shar) years. Scholars have found many similarities between the stories of Ziusudra, Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah. At this time, the scribes learning in the tablet houses must be transferring their oral stories onto clay, in addition to studying, copying and imitating earlier texts. Works created in these years are almost all poetic in form, some extending to thousands of lines. These texts are mainly myths and epic tales in the form of narrative poems celebrating the adventures of Sumerian gods and heros, hymns to gods and kings, lamentations of Sumerian cities, wisdom compositions that include proverbs, fables, and essays. The Sumerians belief in a variety of gods and goddesses, so already, by the time of the invention of writing we see the theory of gods and goddesses. This inaccurate belief in a god theory will continue into present times. The Sumerians have around 50 gods and 50 goddesses so far counted. The view expressed is the traditional view that many of the gods have human form, many are related, and they control various objects such as the sky (the god Anu, also god of heaven which indicates belief in a heaven (but this may be Christian misinterpretation, do dead people go to sky/heaven in Sumerian myths?)), the earth (the goddess Ki, consort to Anu), the wind (the god Ishkur), the sun (the god Utu), the earth (the god Enki), grain (the goddess Ashnan), venus (the goddess Inanna), and many more. Many of the gods will be renamed as time continues, for example, the Sumerian goddess "Inanna", the first god known to be associated with the planet Venus, is named "Ishtar" by the Akkadians and Babylonians, "Isis" by the Egyptians, "Aphrodite" by the Greeks, "Turan" by the Etruscans, and "Venus" by the Romans. The Sumerians call Inanna the "Holy Virgin" and this may indicate an early example of the erroneous belief that a female that has not had sex is somehow more pure.	Sumer
4,550 YBN [2550 BC]	1069) Earliest evidence of skin being wriiten on (parchment) in Egypt.	Egypt
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	677)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	688)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	689) First animal and vegetable dyes.
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	690)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	691)
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	692) Oldest evidence of silver sheet metal objects.
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	1052) First arch is built in the Indus valley.
4,500 YBN [2500 BC]	6230) Earliest dice and boardgame. There is a claim of earlier dice and boardgame from Iran (see image of dice - but there is no image of the actual board).	Ur, Mesopotamia
4,407 YBN [2407 BC]	800)
4,400 YBN [2400 BC]	915) Thousands of clay tablets with text in Syria, at Elba, near Aleppo, from palace libraries and archives.
4,400 YBN [2400 BC]	1277) The oldest recorded history is written on a clay tablet in Lagash. This document is created by an archivist of Entemena, the fifth in a dynasty of rulers of Lagash. The purpose of the document is to record the boundary between Lagash and Umma, but to set the context, describes the history of the border and the struggle for power between Lagash and Umma as far back as the archivist's records reach, which is to the time of Mesilim, the suzerain of Sumer around 2600 BCE. This text is somewhat abstract because of the many references to gods.	Sumer, Lagash, Umma
4,300 YBN [2300 BC]	667) Earliest evidence of glass making, glass beads. The first human-made glass beads and pendants are made around 4,300 years ago (2300 BC) in the area of modern Iraq and northern Syria (Mesopotamia), with the first strikingly colored (coreformed) vessels appearing there in the 16th/15th centuries BC.	Mesopotamia
4,200 YBN [2200 BC]	1294) The earliest astronomical observatory in the Americas is near Lima, Peru. Structures at the site, discovered near Lima, Peru, align with the directions of sunrise and sunset at critical points in the agricultural calendar, including December 21, the start of the Southern Hemisphere's growing season, and June 21, the end of harvest.	Lima, Peru
4,130 YBN [2130 BC]	6234) Earliest evidence of horn used as musical instrument.	Lagash, Mesopotamia
4,100 YBN [2100 BC]	1279) The earliest medical (health science) text, found in Nippur. There are more than 10 remedies listed on this clay tablet, thought by some to be recorded by a physician for fellow physicians or students. Materials used are mostly from plants, such as cassia, myrtle, asafoetida, thyme, and from trees such as the willow, pear, fir, fig and date trees, but also include sodium chloride (salt), potassium nitrate (saltpeter), milk, snake skin, and turtle shell. These materials are prepared from seed, root, branch, bark or gum, and are probably stored in either solid or powdered form. Some ingredients are boiled in water and probably filtered. The suffering body part is then rubbed by the filtrate, oil is rubbed on it, and more materials may be added. For mixtures taken internally, beer, milk and or oil are used to make the "medicine" more palatable. This is the only medical text recovered in the 3rd millenium BCE, but there is debate about medical knowledge in Egypt for which the earliest evidence is the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus which dates to the 17th century BCE but is thought to be based on material going back to 3000BCE. To obtain potassium nitrate (saltpeter), judging from later Assyrian methods, the Sumerians may remove for purification any crystalline material from drains where nitrogenous waste products such as urine flow. The Sumerians may have used fractional crystallization to separate the components such as salts of sodium and potassium. The text requires for materials to be "purified" before their use, and this may involve a number of chemical operations. One part of the text calls for a pulvarized alkali which is thought to be the alkali ash produced by the pit-burning of plants of the Amaranthaceae (was Chenopodiaceae) family which are rich in soda. Two presciptions use alkali together with substances that contain a large amount of fat which would produce a form of soap. In this, the oldest medical text, there are no references to any god, demon, magic spell or incantation.	Nippur
4,050 YBN [2050 BC]	1278) The earliest recorded laws, the Ur-Nammu tablet. Ur-Nammyu founded the Third Dynasty of Ur. The laws are written in Sumerian cuneiform and are damaged so only a few have been deciphered. One law involves a trial by water, another describes the return of a slave to their master. Other laws describe monetary penalties for violent crimes such as for cutting off a foot or nose. To me this opens the debate about an eye-for-an-eye punishment versus pentalies such as jail and monetary fines. This tablet was found in Nippur.	Ur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	703) Earliest kaolin clays used in China.	China
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	705)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	706)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	707)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	708)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	710)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	711)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	733) Oldest lock, found in ruins of the palace of Khorsabad near Nineveh. The lock is made of wood and uses a tumbler design, similar to modern locks. This kind of lock will be used widely in Egypt.	Nineveh
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	1283) The earliest library catalog is a clay tablet from the library in the tablet house in Nippur. This tablet lists the titles of numerous tablets with stories recognized by modern people from other tablets.	Nippur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	1286) Gilgamesh, according to the Sumerian king list, was the fifth king of Uruk, the son of Lugalbanda, ruling around 2650 BCE. Many Sumerian texts have stories about a hero killing a beast (or dragon-slaying tales). Sometimes the hero is a god, for example Enki or Ninurta. Gilgamesh is described as a man, and in other stories as part man and part god. This story is pieced together from 14 tablets and fragments and goes like this: The "lord" Gilgamesh, realizing that, like all mortals, he must die sooner or later, is determined to "raise up a name" for himself before dying. So Gilgamesh decides to journey to the far away "Land of the Living" to cut down the cedar trees there and bring them to Erech (Uruk). Gilgamesh tells this to his servant (slave), Enkidu. Enkidu advises Gilgamesh to describe his plan to Utu who is in charge of the cedar land. (one interpretation explains that this belief is because the sun was thought to touch the mountains with the trees at sunset). Acting on this advice Gilgamesh brings offerings to Utu and pleads for support on his journey. At first Utu is skeptical, but Gilgamesh repeats his plea and Utu takes pity on him, and decides to help Gilgamesh probably by stopping the seven demons that personify destructive weather phenomena that might menace Gilgamesh on his journey across the mountains between Erech and the "Land of the Living". Overjoyed, Gilgamesh gathers fifty volunteers from Erech, men who have neither "house" nor "mother" who are ready to follow him. After having weapons of bronze and wood prepared for him and his companians, they cross the seven mountains with the help of Utu. Much of the text is poorly preserved at this part, but when the text become clear, we see that Gilgamesh has fallen into a heavy sleep and is only awakened after considerable time and effort. Angered by this delay Gilgamesh swears he will enter the "Land of the Living" with no interference from man or god. Enkidu pleads with Gilgamesh to turn back, because the guardian of the cedars is the fearful monster Huwawa, whose destructive attack none may withstand. But convinced that with Enkidu's help, no harm can happen to either of them, Gilgamesh tells his servent to put away his fear and go forward with him. The monster Huwawa, spying on them from his cedar house makes frantic but vain efforts to drive the band of men off. After a break of some lines, Gilgamesh, after chopping down some trees has probably reached Huwawa's inner chamber. Curiously, Gilgamesh merely slaps Huwawa, and Huwawa is overcome by fright. Huwawa says a prayer to the sun-god Utu, and begs Gilgamesh not to kill him. Gilgamesh suggests to Enkidu that Huwawa be set free, but Enkidu is fearful of the consequences and advises against letting Huwawa free. Huwawa criticizes Enkidu for this merciless view. Gilgamesh and Enkidu cut off the head of Huwawa. They then bring the corpse of Huwawa to the gods Enlil and Ninlil. After several fragmentary lines, the tablet ends.	Nippur
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	5860) Earliest known recorded musical composition. (more info)	Nippur, Babylonia (now Iraq) (verify)
4,000 YBN [2000 BC]	6236) Metal traded as money. The use of metal for money can be traced back to Babylonia more than 2000 years bc, but standardization in the form of coins does not occur systematically until the 7th century bc. Historians generally ascribe the first use of coined money to Croesus, king of Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The earliest coins are made of electrum, a natural mixture of gold and silver, and are bean-shaped ingots bearing a primitive punch mark certifying to either weight or fineness or both.	Babylonia
3,842 YBN [1842 BC]	712) First all phonetic language and alphabet. Proto-semitic alphabet made in turquoise mines probably by Semitic humans. This alphabet is thought to have replaced cuneiform, and may be root of all other alphabets. This first strictly phonetic alphabet is in use until 1797 BCE. Encyclopedia Britannica states that the evolution of the alphabet involves two important achievements. The first step is the invention of an all-consonant writing system. The second is the invention of characters for representing vowels which is made by Greek people between 800 and 700 bce. Around this time the Egyptians have a large-scale project to search for turquoise in the high mountains of southern Sinai, at a site today called Serabit el-Khadem. The credit for first noticing an unusual inscription in Serabit goes to Hilda Petrie, wife of the famous Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, who was leading an archaeological expedition to Serabit in 1905. Hilda Petrie called attention to some fallen stones on the ground by one of the mines, bearing several signs that seem not to be real hieroglyphs. Then more of these inscriptions began turning up on rocks by the turquoise mines, and even inside the mines. However, only two small statues and a sphinx bore inscriptions in this strange new script. Petrie studied these crude inscriptions and observed that they appeared to be a kind of imitation of hieroglyphic signs, but the quantity of signs was very small. Petrie ingeniously identified these awkward signs as an alphabetic script, different from the Egyptian hieroglyphic system with its hundreds of signs. Yet Petrie was unable to read these strange inscriptions. In 1916, some ten years later, Sir Alan Gardiner, the famous English Egyptologist, noticed a group of four signs that was frequently repeated in these unusual inscriptions. Gardiner correctly identified the repetitive group of signs as a series of four letters in an alphabetic script that represented a word in a Canaanite language: b-‘-l-t, vocalized as Baalat, "the Mistress". Gardiner suggested that Baalat was the Canaanite appellation for Hathor, the goddess of the turquoise mines. An important key to the decipherment was a unique bilingual inscription. It is inscribed on a small sphinx from the temple and features a short inscription in what appears to be parallel texts in Egyptian and in the new script. The Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription on the sphinx reads: "The beloved of Hathor, the mistress of turquoise." Each of the critical letters in the word Baalat is a picture—a house, an eye, an ox goad and a cross. Gardiner correctly saw that each pictograph has a single acrophonic value: The picture stands not for the depicted word but only for its initial sound. Thus the pictograph bêt, "house", drawn as the four walls of a dwelling represents only the initial consonant b. Baalat is written as shown in the drawing, in the blue highlighted areas (although the final "tav" is not legible in line A). This ingenious principle is at the root of all of our alphabetic systems. Each sign in this script stands for one consonant in the language. (Vowels were not represented. The representation of vowels came later). The alphabet was invented in this way by Canaanites at Serabit in the Middle Bronze Age, in the middle of the 19th century B.C.E., probably during the reign of Amenemhet III of the XIIth Dynasty.	(Caanan modern:) Palestine|(turquoise mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai Peninsula
3,800 YBN [1800 BC]	713) Earliest version of Canaanite alphabet thought to be developed at this time.
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	715) Wooden spoked wheel reaches egypt from asia in the form of the two wheeled chariot (as seen in image of tutankhamun).
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	1280) The earliest agricultural science text, found in Nippur. This is a 3 by 4.5 inch Sumerian clay tablet. This text include instructions describing how far apart to plow, how far apart to space barley seeds, to change the direction of furrows each year, when to water the plants, and to harvest the barley "in the day of its strength" before the barley bends under its own weight. This text shows that 3 people work together as a team to harvest barley, a reaper (cutter), a binder and a third whose job is not clear. Threshing of the barley is done by a sledge (sled) moved back and forth over the heaped up grain stalks for 5 days. The barley is then "opened" with an "opener" which is drawn by oxen. The grain is then winnowed with pitch forks to free it from dust and laid on sticks.	Nippur
3,700 YBN [1700 BC]	1281) The earliest text describing horse back riding, is on a clay tablet that tells a Sumerian fable.	Nippur and Ur, Sumer
3,650 YBN [1650 BC]	716) Ahmose (also called "Ahmes") states that he copied the papyrus from a now-lost Middle Kingdom original, dating around 2000 BC.
3,552 YBN [1552 BC]	799)
3,550 YBN [1550 BC]	1282) The earliest animal fable is written on a clay tablet in Sumerian. Some of these fables will be ancestors of Aesop's fables 1000 years later around 550BCE. The Sumerian fables include stories about talking animals such as dogs, cattle, donkeys, foxes, pigs, sheep, lions, wild oxen (the now extinct Bos primigenius), goats and wolves.	Sumer
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	624) Oldest oven-baked (burned) brick. A burned brick is a mud brick that been baked in an oven (kiln) at an elevated temperature to harden it, give it mechanical strength, and improve its resistance to moisture.	Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	721) Li cooking pot in China.
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	722) Beehive tomb at Mynae.
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	723) Oldest simple pulleys used in Assyria. A pulley is a wheel that has a grooved rim for carrying a rope or other line and turning in a frame. The pulley wheel is also called a "sheave". One or more independently rotating pulleys can be used to gain mechanical advantage, especially for lifting weights. The shafts around which the pulleys turn may attach them to frames or blocks, and a combination of pulleys, blocks, and rope is called a block and tackle. The pulley is considered one of the five simple machines.	Nimroud, Assyria
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	724)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	725) iron worked by Chalybes.
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	726)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	727)
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	1516) The "Vedas" (Sanskrit: वेद) (English: "knowledge"), four ancient Indian collections of hymns and ritual formulas are started around this time. The 4 "Vedas" form the oldest scriptural texts of the religion of Hinduism. The four Vedas are: the "Rig-Veda", the "Yajur-Veda", the "Sama-Veda", and the "Atharva-Veda".	India
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6228) Water clock (Clepsydra). The science of telling the time of day (horology) began around 3500 BC with the invention of the gnomon and sundial, and the hour-glass. Around 1500 BC, the Egyptian clepsydra (water clock) used dripping water between two containers which were marked to indicate the time. In China, in the 100s CE, astronomer Zhang Heng built a celestial globe whose movement is regulated by clepsydra. In the 700s Yi Xing and Liang Lingzan added a mechanical clock.	Egypt
3,500 YBN [1500 BC]	6229) A map of the city of Nippur in Mesopotamia, is the oldest surviving map of a city.(verify)	Nippur, Mesopotamia
3,358 YBN [1358 BC]	2727) Amenhotep IV (also Akhenaton) (BCE c1385-c1350), Pharaoh of Egypt, introduces the concept of monotheism. Some people claim that Zoroastrianism, Judaism and therefore all monotheistic religions descend from Amenhotep's Sun God Aton. Akhenaton may be the first person of recorded history to question or doubt the ancient "gods rule the universe" theory, although Akhenaton clearly believes in the existence of a god.	Amarna, Egypt
3,300 YBN [1300 BC]	914) Thousands of clay tablets in Syria, at Ugarit (Ras-Shamra) near Latakia, from palace libraries and archives.
3,200 YBN [1200 BC]	732)
3,200 YBN [1200 BC]	734) Greek penteconter, a type of Greek galley with fifty oars.
3,200 YBN [1200 BC]	735) Assyrian-Median wall.
3,200 YBN [1200 BC]	736) Oldest evidence of two piece mould casting.
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	740) The earliest literary reference to a water-driven, wheel with compartments appears in the technical treatise Pneumatica (chap. 61) of the Greek engineer Philon (Φίλων) of Byzantium (265-202 BCE). A water wheel is a partially submerged wheel with paddles which is turned by water running against, or dropping on, its paddles. This automated system allows a larger volume of grain to be ground into flour faster. For thousands of years before this grain was ground into flour by hand. The use of water to produce electricity occurs in 1891 in Germany, In hydroelectric power, a large volume of water is stored behind a dam, to assure an adequate supply at a controllable rate of flow, and is released to flow through a turbine to generate electricity.
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	746) Oldest evidence for complex pulleys. The lifting power of a pulley is multiplied by the number of strands acting directly upon the moving pulleys.
3,000 YBN [1000 BC]	6237) Earliest lens. Sir David Brewster described the lens writing: "This lens is plano-convex, and of a slightly oval form, its length being 1 6/10 inch, and its breadth l 4/10 inch. It is about 9/10ths of an inch thick, and a little thicker at one side than the other. Its plane surface is pretty even, though ill polished and scratched. Its convex surface has not been ground, or polished, on a spherical concave disc, but has been fashioned on a lapidary's wheel, or by some method equally rude. The convex side is tolerably well polished, and though uneven from the mode in which it has been ground, it gives a tolerably distinct focus, at the distance of 4 1/2 inches from the plane side. There are about twelve cavities in the lens, that have been opened during the process of grinding it: these cavities, doubtless contained either naphtha, or the same fluid which is discovered in (opazi quartz, and other minerals. As the lens does not show the polarised rays at great obliquities, its plane surface must be greatly inclined to the axis of the hexagonal prism of quartz from which it must have been taken. It is obvious, from the shape and rude cutting of the lens, that it could not have been intended as an ornament; we are entitled, therefore, to consider it as intended to be used as a lens, either for magnifying, or for concentrating the rays of the sun, which it does, however, very imperfectly.". Another, possibly 5th century BC, lens was found in a sacred cave on Mount Ida on Crete and is more powerful and of far better quality than the Nimrud lens. Aristophanes (c450-c388 bce), Greek playwright, in his play "Clouds", around 423 BCE, describes a crystal lens used for burning. Also, Roman writers Pliny and Seneca refer to a lens used by an engraver in Pompeii. (State first known glass lens.)	Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
2,910 YBN [910 BC]	635) The oldest smelted iron artifacts are from Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan and date to around 2800-2700 years ago, but two charcoal samples from the same site date to 2930-2910 years before now. This is the start of the Iron Age, as iron becomes more popular because iron is more abundant. in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Egypt It is possible, under certain conditions, to produce iron when smelting copper, and so it may be that iron produced before the late Bronze Age may have been produced in the process of smelting copper, or possibly lead. If iron oxide in any one of its three forms (haematite; limonite; magnetite) is accidentally or deliberately added to the furnace charge as a fluxing agent (a mineral added to the metals in a furnace to promote fusing or to prevent the formation of oxides), in smelting copper or lead, the iron will combine with the silica in the ore to form slag that will melt and eventually run off. In circumstances of high temperature and extreme reducing atmosphere, small bits of relatively pure iron could have been produced. (Note that evidence of melted iron implies iron casting although no molds or shaped iron artifacts are found.)	Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan
2,850 YBN [850 BC]	751) Greek humans copy phonetic alphabet language from phoenician humans. Phoenician humans are using a variation of letters used at this time by Semite humans in Syria-Palestine, Canaanite writing. "Alef" (ox), "beth" (house), "gimel" (camel), "daleth" (door), etc. are changed to "alpha", "beta", "gamma", "delta", etc. The semitic alphabets Hebrew and Arabic are descended from the Canaanite language.	Greece
2,800 YBN [800 BC]	718) ? is the first name in history, if pronounced accurately, to contain the "u" (cup) sound.
2,800 YBN [800 BC]	818) Theta (uppercase Θ, lowercase θ) is the eighth letter of the Greek alphabet, derived from the Phoenician letter Teth. Ṭēth (also Teth, Tet) is the ninth letter of many Semitic abjads, including Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew ט, Syriac ܛ and Arabic ṭāʼ ﻁ (in abjadi order, 16th in modern order). In Ancient Greek theta represened an aspirated dental stop (/th/), but in Koiné and later dialects it fricativized to a voiceless dental fricative /θ/. Koiné Greek (Κοινή Ἑλληνική), a Greek dialect that developed from the Attic dialect (of Athens) and became the spoken language of Greece at the time of the Empire of Alexander the Great. It became the lingua franca (a common language used by people with different native languages) of the Roman Empire. The Koine was the original language of the New Testament, of the writings of the early Christian Church Fathers and of all of Greek literature for about ten centuries. According to Porphyry of Tyros, the Egyptians used an X within a circle as a symbol of the soul ? is the first name in history, if pronounced accurately, to contain the "t" (theta) sound. By the time of Thessaly and Thales. This occurs only in the Greek language and is found in no earlier languages (to my knowledge).
2,800 YBN [800 BC]	1036) The Latin language is brought to the Italian peninsula by people who migrate from the north, and settled in the Latium region, around the River Tiber, where the Roman civilization will first develop.
2,800 YBN [800 BC]	5862) Earliest evidence of recorded musical notation.	Mesopotamia
2,785 YBN [785 BC]	771)
2,700 YBN [700 BC]	1075) At this time Latin speaking people start replacing words with K with the letter "C".	Italy
2,688 YBN [688 BC]	916) From 688-681 BCE, Senncherib (Asurbanipal's predecessor) has a library in the southwest palace, or 'palace without rival', at Nineveh.
2,669 YBN [669 BC]	1284) Ashurbanipal, the last great king of ancient Assyria, systematically collects clay tablets and builds a library, and is one of the few kings of ancient history that can read and write. This is probably the largest library of this time and 20,000 to 30,000 cuneiform tablets containing approximately 1,200 distinct texts have been uncovered. Assyrian sculpture reached a high point under his rule (for example the Northern palace and south-western palace at Nineveh, battle of Ulai). Greeks people refer to Ashurbanipal as Sardanapalos; Latin and other medieval texts refer to Ashurbanipal as Sardanapalus. In the Bible he is called As(e)nappar or Osnapper (Ezra 4:10). During Ashurbanipal's rule, Assyria excelled in art and had a strong military. Ashurbanipal creates "the first systematically collected library" at Nineveh, where he tries to gather all cuneiform literature available. Therefore, this library is different from an archive where tablets simply accumulate over time.	Nippur
2,669 YBN [669 BC]	1287) The "standard" version of the story of Gilgamesh is from the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. It was written in standard Babylonian, a dialect of Akkadian that was only used for literary purposes. This version was standardized by Sin-liqe-unninni sometime between 1300 BCE and 1000 BCE out of the older versions to one official version. There are 12 tablets and the story is this: Tablet 1. The story starts with an introduction of Gilgamesh of Uruk, the greatest king on earth, two-thirds god and one-third human, as the strongest King-God who ever existed. The introduction describes his glory and praises the brick city walls of Uruk. The people in the time of Gilgamesh, however, are not happy. They complain that he is too harsh and abuses his power by requiring that he have sex with each woman after their marriage before their husband does, so the goddess of creation Aruru creates the wild-man Enkidu from clay, who naked, long-haired, and innocent of all human relations, lives with the wild beasts of the plains. Enkidu starts bothering the shepherds. When one of them complains to Gilgamesh, the king sends the woman Shamshat, a prostitute (courtesan, priestess or prostitute, nadītu or hierodule in Greek) to "humanize" Enkidu by having sex with him. Shamshat has sex with Enkidu and satifies his sex instincts. As a result Enkidu loses his brute strength but gains in wisdom. With this new found wisdom the wild beasts no longer recognize Enkidu as their own. The courtesan Shamshat guides Enkidu in the civilized arts of eating, drinking and dressing. This humanized Enkidu is then ready to meet Gilgamesh, whose arrogant and tyrannical spirit he is destines to subdue. Gilgamesh has some unusual dreams and his mother Ninsun explains them by telling that a mighty friend will come to him. Tablet 2. Enkidu and Shamshat leave the wilderness for Uruk to marry each other. When Gilgamesh comes to the party to have sex with Shamshat he finds his way blocked by Enkidu. (Another version has Gilgamesh meeting Enkidu and eager to display his unrivaled position in Erech, Gilgamesh arranges a night-time orgy and invites Enkidu to attend. Enkidu, however, is repelled by Gilgamesh's sexual cravings, and blocks his way to prevent Gilgamesh from entering the house appointed for the orgy.) Enkidu and Gilgamesh fight each other. Gilgamesh the sophisticated towsman and Enkidu the simple plainsman. Enkidu seems to be getting the better of Gilgamesh, when Gilgamesh breaks off from the fight, the two kiss and embrace (this portion is missing from the Standard Babylonian version but is supplied from other versions). Out of this bitter struggle is born a friendship of two heros. After this fight Gilgamesh introduces Enkidu to his mother and makes him family because the poor man has none of his own. (Enkidu is not happy in Erech because it's sexual life makes him weaker.) So Gilgamesh proposes to travel to the Cedar Forest to cut some great trees and kill the forest's fearful guardian, the mighty Humbaba (Huwawa in the earlier Sumerian version). Enkidu objects, knowing the cedar forest from his early savage days, but Gilgamesh only mocks his fears. Tablet 3. Gilgamesh and Enkidu prepare to adventure to the Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh confers with the elders of Erech, obtains the approval of the sun-god Shamash (utu in the earlier Sumerian text), the patron of all travelers, and has the craftsmen of Uruk cast gigantic weapons for himself and Enkidu. (Another version has Gilgamesh telling his mother about his planned journey who complains about it but then asks the sun-god Shamash for support and gives Enkidu some advice.) Tab let 4. Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest (in the Sumerian version they take 50 young males with them). On the way Gilgamesh has five bad dreams but due to the bad construction of the tablet they are hard to reconstruct. Enkidu each time explains the dreams as a good omen. When they reach the forest Enkidu becomes afraid again and Gilgamesh has to encourage him. Tablet 5. When the heroes finally meet Humbaba, the beast-like guardian of the trees starts to threaten them. This time Gilgamesh is the one that becomes afraid. After some brave words from Enkidu the battle begins. Their rage separates the Sirara mountains from the Libanon. Finally Shamash sends his 13 winds to help the two heroes and Humbaba is defeated. The monster begs Gilgamesh for his life and Gilgamesh pities Humbaba. Enkidu however gets angry with Gilgamesh and asks him to kill the beast. Humbaba then turns to Enkidu and begs him to persuade his friend to spare his life. When Enkidu repeats his request to Gilgamesh Humbaba curses them both before Gilgamesh puts an end to it. (other versions?) When the two heroes cut a huge tree Enkidu makes a huge door of it for the gods and lets it float down the river. Tablet 6. On their return to Uruk, Gilgamesh rejects the sexual advances of Anu's daughter, the goddess of love and lust Ishtar, because of what happened to her previous lovers like Dumuzi (Another version has Gilgamesh rejecting Ishtar because of her promiscuity and faithlessness, which seems unlikely). Angered and offended, Ishtar asks her father Anu to send the "Bull of Heaven" against Uruk to destroy Gilgamesh and his city to avenge the rejected sexual advances. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the dead from the nether world. Anu becomes scared and gives in. The Bull of Heaven descends and begins to lay waste to the city of Uruk, killing its warriors by the hundreds. (possibly the Bull eats up all the plants?) Gilgamesh and Enkidu, together take up the struggle against the Bull and this time without divine help, kill the Bull. (They offer the Bull's heart to Shamash.) (When they hear Ishtar cry out in agony, Enkidu tears off the bull's hindquarter and throws it in her face and threatens her.) The city Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has a bad dream detailed in the next tablet. Tablet 7. In the dream of Enkidu, the gods decide that somebody has to be punished for killing the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba, and they decide to punish Enkidu. Enkidu is sentenced to an early death by the gods. (All of this is against the will of Shamash). Enkidu tells Gilgamesh all about it and then curses the door he made for the gods. Gilgamesh is shocked and goes to temple to pray to Shamash for the health of his friend. Enkidu then starts to curse Shamat because now he regrets the day that he became human. Shamash speaks from the heaven and points out how unfair Enkidu is and also tells him that Gilgamesh will become a shadow of his former self because of his death. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamat. He becomes more and more ill and describes the Netherworld as he is dying. Tablet 8. Gilgamesh delivers a lamentation for Enkidu, offering gifts to the many gods in order that they might walk beside Enkidu in the netherworld. Tablet 9. Gilgamesh sets out to avoid Enkidu's fate and makes a perilous journey to visit Utnapishtim and his wife (Ziusudra in the early Sumerian flood stories), the only humans to have survived the Great Flood who were granted immortality by the gods, in the hope that he too can attain immortality. Along the way, Gilgamesh passes the two mountains where the sun rises from, guarded by two scorpion-men. They allow him to proceed and he travels through the dark where the sun travels every night. Just before the sun is about to catch up with him, he reaches the end. The land on the end of the tunnel is a wonderland full of trees with leaves of jewels. Tablet 10. Gilgamesh meets the alewyfe (barmaid) Siduri and tells her the purpose of his journey. Siduri attempts to dissuade him from his quest but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman to help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Urshanabi is in the company of some sort of stone-giants. Gilgamesh considers them as hostile and kills them. When he tells Urshanabi his story and asks for help he is told that he just killed the only creatures able to cross the Waters of Death. The waters of death are not to be touched so Utshanabi commands him to cut 120 oars so that they can cross the waters by picking a new oar each time. Finally they reach the island of Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim sees that there is something wrong with the boat, and asks Gilgamesh about it. Gilgamesh tells him his story and asks for help but Utnapishtim reprimands him because fighting the fate of humans is futile and ruins the joy in life. Tablet 11. Gilgamesh argues that Utnapishtim is not different from him and asks him his story, why he has a different fate. Utnapishtim tells him about the great flood, his story is a summary of the story of Atrahasis (see also Gilgamesh flood myth) but skips the previous plagues sent by the gods(explain more). He reluctantly offers Gilgamesh a chance for immortality, but questions why the gods would give the same honor as himself, the flood hero, to Gilgamesh and challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights first. However just when Utnapishtim finishes his words Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim ridicules the sleeping Gilgamesh in the presence of his wife and tells her to bake a loaf of bread for every day he is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny his failure. When Gilgamesh, after six days and seven nights discovers his failure Utnapishtim is furious with him and sends him back to Uruk with Urshanabi in exile. The moment that they leave, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to have mercy on Gilgamesh for his long journey. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a plant at the bottom of the ocean that will make him young again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by binding stones to his feet so he can walk the bottom of the sea. He doesn"t trust the plant and plans to test it on an old-timer back in Uruk. Unfortunately he places the plant on the shore of a lake while he bathes, and it is stolen by a snake who loses his old skin and thus is reborn. Gilgamesh weeps in the presence of Urshanabi. Having failed at both opportunities, he returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi. Tablet 12. Note that the content of the last tablet is not connected with previous ones. Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that his ball-game-toys fell in the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and mustn"t do in the underworld in order to come back. Enkidu forgets the advice and does everything he was told not to. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him his friend back. Enlil and Sin don"t bother to reply but Enki and Shamash decide to help. Shamash cracks a hole in the earth and Enkidu jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld. The story doesn"t make clear if Enkidu reappears only as a ghost of really comes alive again. Some important points to notice in this story are: 1) That prostitution is probably legal and sex is openly talked about without a feeling of embarrassment. In modern times paying for most kind of sex is illegal and books that talk about sex are kept private and are restricted from young people. Notice the story of how sex with the female Shamshat calms and civilizes the wild-man Enkidu, perhaps relating an accurate common-knowledge view of the calming effect that happens to an aggressive male after orgasm. So in terms of sexuality humans are more backwards now than humans were 2700 years ago, mainly as a result of the rise of the antisexual religions centered on Jesus and Mohammed. 2) Notice the Bull sent from the gods. In the earlier Sumerian myths the bull of the sun is called amar-utu which is translated into Marduct in Akkadian. Perhaps this story provides a reason why an older god (Marduct) should be replaced, symbolically represented as the bull being killed. In addition, the idea of a bull sent from gods may have influenced the later Greek myth of Zeus taking the form of a bull and having sex with women in that form. 3) Notice the belief in a Netherworld, similar to Hades in Greek, a place believed to be where dead people live after their death. So this inaccurate belief of humans living in some other place after their death is clearly in effect by this time. (Earliest Sumerian writings describe Afterlife) 4) Notice the curious nature of the fractional 2/3 god and 1/3 human aspect of Gilgamesh. This may reflect an interest in mathematics. Perhaps this influenced the 3 part nature of the god of the Jesus-based Christian religion (Jesus being the 1/3 human, god the 1/3 god, and the holy spirit occupying the last 1/3) (explain story of the spirit replacing the role of a female as Helen Ellerbe states in Dark Side of Christianity?). 5) Interesting also the reckless view of chopping down trees without any thought about replacing them, or that they the trees take years to grow, etc. In some way, Humbaba might be viewed as a fallen hero, being protector of the trees. Notice how Enkidu plays the role of antisexuality and setting limits on the power of a tyrant and king. Another interesting point is how Ishtar is a female requesting sex from a male which may imply that female humans might have the authority to make such a request of male humans. That a snake is used to eat the plant that makes old living objects young instead of some other species to explain why the snake sheds a layer of skin might be the reason a snake is in the garden of eden in the Hebrew Bible which will evolve into the Christian Old Testament.	Nippur
2,668 YBN [668 BC]	917) 668-627 BCE Assyrian King Asurbanipal assembles library. This library at Nineveh contains thousands of tablets, many brought from other sites.
2,660 YBN [660 BC]	644) The Demotic symbol set, is a short hand, very rapid, abbreviated form of hieratic, and looks like series of "agitated commas". The word "demotic" is from Greek meaning "of the people" or "popular".
2,650 YBN [650 BC]	1066)	Nineveh
2,621 YBN [621 BC]	1519) Draco (Greek Δράκων) (flourishes 600s BCE), creates an early law code in Athens. This law code is very harsh, punishing both trivial and serious crimes with death.	Athens, Greece
2,605 YBN [605 BC]	918) 605-562 BCE, Babylonia has a great library under Nebuchadnezzar.
2,600 YBN [600 BC]	762) Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) is the first human of record to explain the universe with out using any gods in the explanation, claiming the universe originated as water.	Miletus, Greece
2,590 YBN [590 BC]	1518) Solon (Greek: Σολων) (BCE c630-c560), Athenian Statesman, introduces democratic reform to the government of Athens by changing rule by people determined by birth to people determined by wealth and implements a more humane law code.	Athens, Greece
2,585 YBN [05/08/585 BC]	770) Thales predicts eclipse of sun by moon on this day (according to Herodotus).
2,580 YBN [580 BC]	764) Anaximander had a more abstract idea of the universe than Thales. Anaximander introduced the science of the ancient east to Greece, made use of the sundial (known for centuries in Egypt and Babylonia), was the first to draw a map of the entire known earth. Anaximander recognized that the stars appeared to orbit the pole star, and so viewed the sky as a complete sphere (not just a semisphere over the earth). This is the first evidence for the idea of spheres in astronomy. This would grow to contribute to the complicated and erroneus system of Ptolomy which will dominate science until Copernicus and Kepler. Anaximander thinks that the earth is curved to explain the change in position of the stars, thinking the earth to be a cylinder. The first papyrus by Anaximander is lost.
2,550 YBN [550 BC]	1035) Oldest latin texts the "Duenos" and "Forum" inscriptions.
2,545 YBN [545 BC]	919) Peisistratus (Πεισίστρατος), the tyrant of Athens founds a library in Athens. This is the first library in Greece. Xerxes will take this library to Persia, and Seleucus Nicanor will return it to Greece.
2,545 YBN [545 BC]	920) Herodotus' invention will earn him the title "The Father of History" and the word he uses for his achievement, "historie", which previously had meant simply "inquiry", will pass into Latin and take its modern connotation of "history" or "story". This nickname will be given to him by Cicero (De legibus I,5) Herodotos writes that doctors are very specialized in Egypt. There are doctors for eyes, head, teeth, stomach, and for "invisible diseases", which may be disturbances of the "nervous system". or perhaps simply any disease without a clear cause (incl bacteria, virus).
2,540 YBN [540 BC]	783) Anaximenes thought air to be a fundamental element of the universe, theorizing that by compression air turns to water and then earth.
2,540 YBN [540 BC]	784) This shows that there was a large amount of tolerence of religious criticism, without any serious punishment.
2,530 YBN [530 BC]	797)
2,530 YBN [530 BC]	798) Reports of lock and key earlier (check, perhaps different kind?).
2,529 YBN [529 BC]	772) Pythagoras describes the earth as a sphere.	Croton, Italy
2,520 YBN [520 BC]	785) This skepticism of religion appears to be widespread and higly tolerated in this time of history in Ionia. Hecataeus was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic people. Some have credited Hecataeus with a work entitled Ges Periodos ("Travels round the Earth" or "World Survey'), in two books each organized in the manner of a periplus, a point-to-point coastal survey. One on Europe, is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean, describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as Scythia. The other book, on Asia, is arranged similarly to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea of which a version of the 1st century CE survives. Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of Egypt being particularly comprehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander"s map of the earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The work only survives in some 374 fragments, by far the majority being quoted in the geographical lexicon Ethnika compiled by Stephanus of Byzantium. The other known work of Hecataeus was the Genealogiai, a rationally systematized account of the traditions and mythology of the Greeks, a break with the epic myth-making tradition, which survives in a few fragments, just enough to show what we are missing. Hecataeus' work, especially the Genealogiai, shows a marked scepticism, opening with "Hecataeus of Miletus thus speaks: I write what I deem true; for the stories of the Greeks are manifold and seem to me ridiculous."1 Unlike his contemporary Xenophanes, he did not criticize the myths on their own terms; his disbelief rather stems from his broad exposure to the many contradictory mythologies he encountered in his travels. An anecdote from Herodotus (II, 143), of a visit to an Egyptian temple at Thebes, is illustrative. It recounts how the priests showed Herodotus a series of statues in the temple's inner sanctum, each one supposedly set up by the high priest of each generation. Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the same spectacle, after mentioning that he traced his descent, through sixteen generations, from a god. The Egyptians compared his genealogy to their own, as recorded by the statues; since the generations of their high priests had numbered three hundred and forty-five, all entirely mortal, they refused to believe Hecataeus's claim of descent from a mythological figure. This encounter with the immemorial antiquity of Egypt has been identified as a crucial influence on Hecataeus's scepticism: the mythologized past of the Hellenes shrank into insignificant fancy next to the history of a civilization that was already ancient before Mycenae was built. He was probably the first of the logographers to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and other poets as trustworthy authorities. Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus for the concept of a prose history.
2,515 YBN [515 BC]	1264) The Behistun Inscription (also Bisitun or Bisutun, بیستون in modern Persian; in Old Persian is Bagastana the meaning is "the god's place or land") includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Like the Rosetta Stone is to translating Egyptian hieroglyphs, so this inscription is the most important inscription to translating cuneiform writing.	Persia (Kermanshah Province of Iran)
2,510 YBN [510 BC]	786) Heraclitus thought the only unchanging fact is that change is certain, for example, Heraclitus thought that a different sun could appear each day. Heraclitus wrote a book; Diogenes Laertius tells us this in his "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers". Diogenes also writes that Herclitus deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple of Artemis, the Artemesium, one of the largest temples of the 6th Century. Many later philosophers in this period refer to the work. "Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out." Heraclitus became very popular in the period following his writing. Within a generation or two "the book acquired such fame that it produced partisans of his philosophy who were called Heracliteans." Karl Popper argues that Heraclitus relativizes moral values in saying "the good and the bad are identical".
2,510 YBN [510 BC]	787) Parmenides is the first famous philospher native to Italy. Plato entitled one dialog "parmenides", and this text describes the meeting of an older parmenides and a young Socrates. this date must have been ~450 bc. this may have been a Plato fiction. His only known work, conventionally titled 'On Nature' is a poem, which has only survived in fragmentary form. Approximately 150 lines of the poem remain today.
2,508 YBN [508 BC]	1517) Kleisthenes (Greek: Κλεισθένης) (BCE c570-c508) creates democratic reform of the Athenian government, basing political responsibility on citizenship of a particular place instead of on membership in a family clan. The word "democracy" (Greek: δημοκρατία - "rule by the people") is invented by Athenians in order to define their system of government around this time. The word Democracy comes from demos ("people") and kratos ("rule").	Athens, Greece
2,500 YBN [500 BC]	825) Crossbow invested in China.
2,500 YBN [500 BC]	831) Darius the Great, king of Persia, orders a 1,306 line inscription carved on a mountain in Behistan, Iran. This text is in 3 languages, Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. This inscription will later be used in the 1800s to translate cuneiform.
2,499 YBN [499 BC]	832) Hecataeus opposes the revolt of Greek cities of Asia Minor against Darius 1 of Persia. This advice is not followed, the Greek revolt is supressed, and the 150 year scientific leadership of the Greek cities of Asia Minor ends.
2,490 YBN [490 BC]	789) Herodotus declares that Hanno claimed to have circumnavigated Africa.
2,470 YBN [470 BC]	840) Humans understand brain controls body. First human dissection.
2,470 YBN [470 BC]	907) Oenopides of Chios, measures the angle between the plane of the celestial equator, and the zodiac (the yearly path of the sun in the sky) to be 24°. This measures the tilt of the earth relative to the plane the earth moves in.
2,467 YBN [467 BC]	1894) Aeschylus writes in Agamemnon: "... Chorus But at what time was the city destroyed? Clytaemestra In the night, I say, that has but now given birth to this day here. Chorus And what messenger could reach here with such speed? Clytaemestra Hephaestus, from Ida speeding forth his brilliant blaze. Beacon passed beacon on to us by courier-flame: Ida, to the Hermaean crag in Lemnos; to the mighty blaze upon the island succeeded, third, the summit of Athos sacred to Zeus; and, soaring high aloft so as to leap across the sea, the flame, travelling joyously onward in its strength * the pinewood torch, its golden-beamed light, as another sun, passing the message on to the watchtowers of Macistus. He, delaying not nor carelessly overcome by sleep, did not neglect his part as messenger. Far over Euripus' stream came the beacon-light and signalled to the watchmen on Messapion. They, kindling a heap of withered heather, lit up their answering blaze and sped the message on. The flame, now gathering strength and in no way dimmed, like a radiant moon overleaped the plain of Asopus to Cithaeron's ridges, and roused another relay of missive fire. Nor did the warders there disdain the far-flung light, but made a blaze higher than their commands. Across Gorgopus' water shot the light, reached the mount of Aegiplanctus, and urged the ordinance of fire to make no delay. Kindling high with unstinted force a mighty beard of flame, they sped it forward so that, as it blazed, it passed even the headland that looks upon the Saronic gulf; until it swooped down when it reached the lookout, near to our city, upon the peak of Arachnaeus; and next upon this roof of the Atreidae it leapt, this very fire not undescended from the Idaean flame. Such are the torch-bearers I have arranged, completing the course in succession one to the other; and the victor is he who ran both first and last. This is the kind of proof and token I give you, the message of my husband from Troy to me. ...". Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) gives a clear description of an optical telegraph (or semaphore) in a submission to the Royal Society in 1684.	Greece (presumably)
2,464 YBN [464 BC]	836) Anaxagoras rejects theory that Gods control the universe. Sun and moon viewed as objects instead of Gods. Anaxagoras (BCE c500-c428) introduces the Ionian science of Thales to Athens, saying that the universe is not made by a diety, but through the action of infinite "seeds", which will later develop into atomic theory under Leucippos. Anaxagoras accurately explains the phases of the earth moon, and both eclipses of moon and sun in terms of their movements. Anaxagoras says that the sun is a red hot stone and the moon a real place like the earth, not gods as is the prevailing belief.
2,460 YBN [460 BC]	841) Humans recognize that all matter is made of atoms. Leukippos (Greek Λευκιππος ) (lEUKEPOS?) (BCE c490-???) is the first person of record to support the theory that everything is composed entirely of various indestructable, indivisible elements called atoms.
2,460 YBN [460 BC]	1037) Diogenes of Apollonia, a Greek natural philosopher, expresses atheistic opinions.
2,454 YBN [454 BC]	844) People in Metpontum burn the Pythagorean meeting place. Plutarch will relate that as a young man Philolaus was one of two people to escape this event.
2,451 YBN [451 BC]	906) Protagoras (Greek: Πρωταγόρας) (c. 481-c. 420 BC) writes in "On the Gods", the agnostic view: "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life." The Athenians condemned him to death for this, but he escaped, and then perished, lost at sea.
2,450 YBN [450 BC]	843) Philolaus theorizes that earth moves through space.	Croton, Italy
2,450 YBN [450 BC]	1033) The "twelve tables", the basis of law in Rome, are completed. These laws describe rules for property, crimes, marriage, divorce and funeral among other topics.
2,450 YBN [450 BC]	1053) Earliest Chain-mail armor (rings of metal connected together) from a Celtic chieftain's burial in Ciumesti, Romania.
2,450 YBN [450 BC]	1112) The Grand Canal (Simplified Chinese: 大运河; Traditional Chinese: 大運河; pinyin: Dà Yùnhé) of China, also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal (Simplified Chinese: 京杭大运河; Traditional Chinese: 京杭大運河; pinyin: Jīng Háng Dà Yùnhé), the largest ancient canal or artificial river on earth, is constructed at this time.	Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
2,438 YBN [438 BC]	823) The Parthenon is completed.
2,431 YBN [431 BC]	1372) Brahmanic hospitals are established in Sri Lanka. According to the Mahavamsa (a historical poem written in the Pāli language, of the kings of Sri Lanka), the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty written in the 500s CE, King Pandukabhaya (300s BCE) had lying-in-homes and hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documentary evidence there is of institutions specifically dedicated to the care of the sick anywhere in the world. Mihintale Hospital is perhaps the earliest hospital on earth. In ancient cultures, religion and medicine were linked. As early as 4000 BCE religions identified specific deities with healing. The earliest known institutions aiming to provide cure were Egyptian temples. Greek temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius might admit the sick, who would wait for guidance from the god in a dream. The Romans adopted this diety but using the name Æsculapius. Æsculapius was provided with a temple (291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in Rome, where similar rites were performed.	Sri Lanka
2,430 YBN [430 BC]	845) Demokritos (Democritus) (Greek: Δημόκριτος) (BCE c460 -c370) explains that the Milky Way is a large group of stars and the universe is filled with many other worlds.	Abdera, Thrace
2,430 YBN [430 BC]	910) Diagoras "the Atheist" of Melos, a Greek poet and sophist, becomes an atheist after an incident that happens against him that goes unpunished by the gods. He speaks out against the orthodox religions, and criticizes the Eleusinian Mysteries. Diagoras throws a wooden image of a god into a fire, saying that the deity should perform another miracle and save itself. The Athenians put a price on his capture, dead or alive, and he flees, living the rest of his life in southern Greece.
2,410 YBN [410 BC]	849) This cycle can be used to predict eclipses, forms the basis of the Greek and Jewish calendars, and is used to determine the date for Easter each year. A year of 12 synodic or lunar months is 354 days on average, 11 days short of the 365.25 day solar year. The Athenians appear not to have had a regular way of adding a 13th month; instead, the question of when to add a month was decided by an official.
2,408 YBN [408 BC]	1138) Although in the comedy "Clouds", Aristophanes paints Ionian science in a bad light through a portrayal of Socrates encouraging young people to beat their parents. But perhaps even then, people paid for such a message to be read during a play (now newspapers, magazines, television and movies accept money for such messages), and money for propaganda, a very old (albeit secretive) system, may have influence Aristophanes even then.	Athens, Greece
2,398 YBN [398 BC]	850) Archytas is taught for a while by Philolaus and is a teacher of mathematics to Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Menaechmus. Archytas was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being a good friend of Plato. Sometimes he is believed to be the founder of mathematical mechanics. He is also reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have actually flown some 200 yards. This machine, which its inventor called The Pigeon, may have been suspended on a wire or pivot for its flight. If true this is the first use of steam to move an object, and this will not be duplicated until Hero 400 years later.
2,390 YBN [390 BC]	909) Aristippus, a follower of Socrates, founds the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. Aristippus supports the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain, usually refered to negativly as "hedonism". Cyrene was a Greek city in Northern Africa in modern day Libya. Aristippus breaks social conventions and engages in behavior considered undignified or shocking for the sake of pleasure. The Cyrenaic school will developed these ideas and influence Epicurus and later Greek skeptics. Aristippus accepts money for instruction as the Sophists do. They also incorrectly reject the idea of postponing immediate gratification for future or long term pleasure. In this respect they will differ from the Epicureans. The main source of information about Aristippus is from is the "Lives of the Philosophers" by Diogenes Laertius, who wrote over 500 years after Aristippus died.
2,366 YBN [366 BC]	858) Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotélēs (BCE 384 - March 7, 322) is a pupil of Plato at the Academy until the age of 37 (347 BCE). Plato calls Aristotle the "intelligence" of the school. Aristotle studies biology and natural history.
2,347 YBN [347 BC]	853) Plato dies and leaves Heracleides in charge of the Academy. Aristotle leaves the Academy. Aristotle meets Theophrastus in Lesbos, and a lifelog friendship is started. Aristotle gives the nickname "Theophrastus" (divine speech) to Theophrastus whose real name is Tyrtamus.
2,342 YBN [342 BC]	857) Aristotle is called to Macedon. the Son of Amyntas II, Phillip II is King of Macedon, and wants Aristotle back in court to teach his 14 year old son Alexander.
2,340 YBN [340 BC]	801) Papyrus scroll, the Derveni papyrus, in Greece.
2,336 YBN [336 BC]	868)
2,332 YBN [332 BC]	921) It is possible that the mouseion was built starting now, and much of the city was constructed by the time Ptolemy arrives to rule 9 years later in 323 BCE.
2,325 YBN [325 BC]	865) Dikaearchos (Δικαιαρχος) (DIKEoRKOS) (Dicaearchus) (~355 BCE - ~285 BCE) makes geometric constructions of a hyperbola and a parabola, is among the first to use geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude).
2,325 YBN [325 BC]	887) Pytheas lives in the western most Greek colonized city, and sails west (where everybody else in greek colonized cities moved east) through the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of Gibraltar) and up the nothern coast of europe. None of his writings have been found, but he will be referenced by later humans. He explores the island of Great Britain, sails north to "Thule" (possibly Iceland, or islands north of Great Britain) is stopped by fog and turned back to explore Northern Europe, by sailing the Baltic sea as far as the Vistula (Wisla river). Pytheas follows the teachings of Dicaerchus and determines the latitude of Massalia by observing the sun. Pytheas observes the tides in the ocean (there are no tides in the land that surround the Mediterranean). Only 2000 years later would Newton explain the attaction of the moon.
2,323 YBN [323 BC]	862) Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum on his own removal to Chalcis. Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-five years, and died in 287 BC. Under his guidance the school flourished greatly; there were at one period more than 2000 students, and at his death he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. Menander was among his pupils. His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander and Ptolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him. He was honoured with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave" (Diogenes Laërtius v41). From the lists of the ancients it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from the Aristotelian treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. He served his age mainly as a great popularizer of science. The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, "On the History of Plants", in nine books (originally ten), and On the Causes of Plants, in six books (originally eight), which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the middle ages; on the strength of these works some call him the "father of Taxonomy". We also possess in fragments a History of Physics, a treatise On Stones, and a work On Sensation, and certain metaphysical Airoptai, which probably once formed part of a systematic treatise. He made the first known reference to the phenomenon of pyroelectricity, noting in 314 BC that the mineral tourmaline becomes charged when heated. Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of JG Schneider (1818-21) and F. Wimmer (1842-62) and in Usener's Analecta Theophrastea. His book The Characters deserves a separate mention. The work consists of brief, vigorous and trenchant delineations of moral types, which contain a most valuable picture of the life of his time. They form the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this.
2,323 YBN [323 BC]	863) The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now brought against Aristotle. He leaves Athens saying, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He takes up residence at his country house at Chalcis, where his mother had lived, in Euboea, and there he dies the following year, 322 BC. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. After the death of Alexander, the anti-Macedonian party accuses Aristotle of impiety. With the example of Socrates behind him, Aristotle escapes to Chalcis in Euboea, where he dies in the same year.
2,323 YBN [323 BC]	877) Ptolemy was one of Alexander the Great's most trusted generals, and among the seven "body-guards" attached to his person. He was a few years older than Alexander, and his intimate friend since childhood. He may even have been in the group of noble teenagers tutored by Aristotle.
2,320 YBN [320 BC]	866) Praxagoras (Πραξαγόρας) (~350 Cos - ???) possibly teaches Herophilus, and is a strong defender of the theories of Hippocrates. Praxagoras distinguishes between veins and arteries, recognizing 2 kinds of blood vessels (some credit this to Alcmaeon). He things arteries carry air (arteries are named for this opinion), thinks arteries lead to smaller vessels (which is true) that then turned in to nerves (which is false). Praxagoras noted the physical connection between the brain and spinal chord.
2,317 YBN [317 BC]	899) Demetrios Falireus (Δημήτριος Φαληρεύς ) (Demetrius Phalereus) (died c. 280 BCE) is an Athenian orator, a student of Aristotle (who also teaches Theophrastus and Alexander the Great), and one of the first Peripatetics. Demetrius writes extensively on the subjects of history, rhetoric, and literary criticism. Demetrius is helped into power in Athens by Alexander's successor Cassander. From 317 BCE to 307 BCE, Demetrius Phalereus is the despot of Athens, serving under Cassander. During this time he provides money for Theophrastus to build the Lyceum which is to be devoted to Aristotle's studies and modeled after Plato's Academy. institutes extensive legal reforms. Carystius of Pergamum mentions that he had a boyfriend by the name of Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys were jealous. This shows clearly that bisexuality was much more accepted as natural in Greece. As time continues, humans will lose this wisdom by becoming more intolerent of bisexuality.
2,316 YBN [316 BC]	908) Euhemerus writes that the Greek gods had been originally kings, for example that Zeus was a king of Crete, who had been a great conqueror.
2,310 YBN [310 BC]	869) Hipparchus will make use of the precession of the equinoxes as documented by Kidinnu. Kidinnu makes a complicated method of expressing movement of the moon and planets, differing from the view that these objects must move at a constant velocity. Stabo and Pliny refer to Kidinnu.
2,310 YBN [310 BC]	871) Strato STrATOS STroTOS? (Στρατός) (340 BCE Lampsacus - 270 BCE Athens) studies at the Lyceum, traveles to Alexandria, possibly tutors the son of Ptolomy I (the Macedonian general made King of Egypt) there. Strato has an atheist view of the universe. Strato views the universe as a mechanical structure without any dieties. Strato is mainly interested in physics, and expands on Aristotle's physics by noticing that falling objects (for example rainwater off a roof) accelerate as they fall to the ground rather than falling at a steady rate as Aristotle predicted. Another one of his teachings was the doctrine of the void, postulating that all bodies contained a void of variable size, which also accounted for weight differences between bodies. One of Strato's students at the Lyceum is Aristarchus of Samos.
2,310 YBN [310 BC]	911) Theodorus "the Atheist", a student of Aristippus the founder of the Cyrenaic of philosophy, writes "on Gods", which uses various arguments to try to destroy Greek theology.
2,307 YBN [307 BC]	901) When Demetrius I of Macedon takes Athens, Demetrius Falereus is overthrown, and he flees to Egypt. Demetrius goes into exile a second time on the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and he died soon afterward.
2,300 YBN [300 BC]	927) Hecataeus of Abdera (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic philosopher, flourishes in the 4th century BCE. Hecataeus accompanies Ptolemy I Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sails up the Nile with Ptolemy as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laertius ix. 6I). The result of his travels is recorded by him in two works, "Aegyptiaca" and "On the Hyperboreans", which will be used by Diodorus Siculus. According to the Suda, Hecataeus also writes a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his authorship of a work on Jewish people (which wil be utilized by Josephus in "Contra Apionem"), it is conjectured that portions of the Aegyptiaca were revised by a Hellenistic Jewish person from his point of view and published as a special work. While in Egypt Hekataeos of Abdura writes that priests teach children two kinds of writing, sacred (hieratic) and the more common (demotic), in addition to geometry and arithmetic. Hecataeus writes "they (egyptians) have preserved to this day the record concerning each of the stars over an incredible number of years...they have also observed with great interest the motions, ... orbits and stoppings of the planets".
2,297 YBN [297 BC]	900) Theophrastus turns down the invitation from King Ptolemy I Soter in 297 BCE to tutor Ptolemy's heir, and instead recommends Demetrios Falireus (other sources cite Straton as being recommended and tutoring ), who had recently been driven out from Athens as a result of political fallout from the conflicts of Alexander's successors. This information is based on the "Letter of Aristeas", which will be written around 150 BCE. Ptolemy I accepts Demetrios Falireus, and Demetrios moves to Egypt. Demtrios Falireus is a politician, and prolific writer. Diogenes Laertius will write highly of Demetrios and will provide a list of Demetrios' works on a wide range of subjects. Demetrios begins collecting texts for the King's library, following the tradition of Plato, with works on state-forming, kingship and ruling.
2,297 YBN [297 BC]	902) Irenaeus will write in the second century CE that "Ptolemy the son of Lagos had the ambition to equip the library established by him in Alexandria with the writings of all men as far as they were worth serious attention". This is evidence that Ptolemy I founded the library in Alexandria. Living in the Mousaeion located in the royal quarter of the city, there is what Strabo would later call a "synodos" (community) of perhaps 30-50 educated men (there are no women), who are salaried members of a "civil list" for their services as tutors, paid for from taxes, while at the same time exempt from taxes, given free food and room, dining together in a (stone?) circular-domed dining hall. Outside this hall there are classrooms, where the residents from time to time are called upon to teach. For 700 years until the 4th century CE, as many as a hundred scholars at a time will come to the library to consult this collection, to read, talk, and write. Papryis scrolls are stored in linen or leather jackets and kept in racks in the hall or in the cloisters (corridors with pillars ). Separate niches are devoted to different classes of authors, and to different categories of learning. The Museion is a research center where no regular teaching (for example of children how to write) took place, most young men learned as research assistants. There were probably public lectures occassionaly attended by the king. According to the letter of Aristeas, Demetrius recommends that Ptolemy II Philadephus should gather a collection of books on kingship and ruling in the style of Plato's philosopher-kings, and furthermore to gather books of all the world's people so that Ptolemy might better understand subjects and trade partners. Demetrius must also help inspire the founding of a Museum in Ptolemy's capital, Alexandria, a temple dedicated to the Muses. This is not the first temple dedicated to the divine patrons of arts and sciences, but coming a half-century after the establishment of Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, Zeno's Stoa and the school of Epicurus, and located in a rich center of international trade and cultural exchange, the place and time are ripe for such an institution to flower. Scholars are invited there to carry out the Peripatetic activities of observation and deduction in math, medicine, astronomy, and geometry; and most of the scientific findings of earth will be recorded and debated there for the next 500 years. Ptolemy I establishes the Mousaeion with a director who is a Pagan priest (different from the head librarian). The Mousaeion is dedicated to the Muses, and there is a Biblion (a place of books) for scholars. Some people think that the Mousaeion is built like the Rameseseum, a combination of palace, museum, and shrine. As a shrine dedicated to the Muses, the Mousaeion has the same legal status as Plato's school in Athens, where a school requires religious status to gain the protection of Athenian law. The Mousaeion is presided over by a priest of the Muses, called an "epistates", or director, appointed like the priests who manage the temples of Egypt. A Head Scholar-Librarian is appointed by the King, and also holdsthe post of royal tutor to the King's children. The Mousaeion initially does editing of homer texts. Ptolemy I invents the God Serapis (in Greek Σέραπη) with the help of 2 priests, an Egy